Influence of salinity and temperature on the germination of Kochia scoparia

Kochia scoparia is one of the most common annual halophytes foundin the Great Basin. Seeds were collected from a population growing in asalt playa at Faust, Utah and were germinated at 5 temperature regimes(12 h night/12 h day, 5–15 ^°C, 10–20 ^°C, 15–25 ^°C,20–30 ^°C and 25–35 ^°C) and 6 salinities (0, 200, 400,600, 800 and 1000 mM NaCl) to determine optimal conditions forgermination and recovery of germination from saline conditions after beingtransferred to distilled water. Maximum germination occurred in distilledwater, and an increase in NaCl concentration progressively inhibited seedgermination. Few seeds germinated at 1000 mM NaCl. A temperatureregime of 25 ^°C night and 35 ^°C day yielded maximumgermination. Cooler temperature 5–15 ^°C significantly inhibited seedgermination. Rate of germination decreased with increase in salinity.Germination rate was highest at 25–35 ^°C and lowest at5–15 ^°C. Seeds were transferred from salt solutions to distilled waterafter 20 days and those from high salinities recovered quickly at warmertemperature regimes. Final recovery germination percentages in high salttreatments were high, indicating that exposure to high concentration ofNaCl did not inhibit germination permanently.     

Behaviour of proteolytic Clostridium botulinum types A and B near the lower temperature limits of growth

Summary The behaviour of spores of Clostridium botulinum type A and proteolytic C. botulinum type B has been studied in cooked meat medium at 10°C, 12°C, 15°C, and 20°C, using mixed cultures (9 groups of in total 41 strains) and pure cultures (41 strains).At 10°C a decrease of 1–1.5 log cycles for type B and of 2–4 log cycles for type A Clostridia was observed. Neither growth nor toxin formation could be demonstrated.At 12°C spores of some strains developed and formed toxin with 3–4 weeks, whereas other strains did not develop within 7 weeks.At 15°C growth and toxin formation could be observed within 1 week, whereas at 20°C toxin was formed mostly within 2 or 3 days. Incubation at 10°C prior to incubation at 20°C seemed to have some effect on the lag time.     

Root-zone temperature and salinity: Interacting effects on tillering,growth and element concentration in barley

The effects of root-zone salinity (0, 30, and 60 mmol L^–1 of NaCl) and root-zone temperature (10, 15, 20, and 25°C) and their interactions on the number of tillers, total dry matter production, and the concentration of nutrients in the roots and tops of barley (Hordeum vulgare L.) were studied. Experiments were conducted in growth chambers (day/night photoperiod of 16/8 h and constant air temperature of 20°C) and under water-culture conditions. Salinity and root temperature affected all the parameters tested. Interactions between salinity and temperature were significant (p<0.05) for the number of tillers, growth of tops and roots, and the concentration of Na, K, P in the tops and the concentration of P in the roots. Maximum number of tillers and the highest dry matter were produced when the root temperature was at the intermediate levels of 15 to 20°C. Effect of salinity on most parameters tested strongly depended on the prevailing root temperature. For example, at root temperature of 10°C addition of 30 mmol L^–1 NaCl to the nutrient solution stimulated the growth of barley roots; at root temperature of 25°C, however, the same NaCl concentration inhibited the root growth. At 60 mmol L^–1, root and shoot growth were maximum when root temperature was kept at the intermediate level of 15°C; most inhibition of salinity occurred at both low (10°C) and high (25°C) root temperatures. As the root temperature was raised from 10 to 25°C, the concentration of Na generally decreased in the tops and increased in the roots. At a given Na concentration in the tops or in the roots, respective growth of tops or roots was much less inhibited if the roots were grown at 15–20°C. It is concluded that the tolerance of barley plant to NaCl salinity of the rooting media appears to be altered by the root temperature and is highest if the root temperature is kept at 15 to 20°C.     

Respiratory energy losses related to cell weight and temperature in ciliated protozoa

Summary Respiratory energy losses in five species of ciliated protozoa, Tetrahymena pyriformis Ehrenberg, Vorticella microstoma Ehrenberg, Paramecium aurelia Ehrenberg, Spirostomum teres Claparède and Lachmann and Frontonia leucas Ehrenberg, were investigated at 8.5° C, 15° C and 20° C using Cartesian diver microrespirometry. Q ₁₀ values of 1.15–2.24 were found for four of the species between 8.5–15° C, while in S. teres a Q ₁₀ of 12.98 occurred between these temperatures. Between 15–20° C T. pyriformis and P. aurelia had Q ₁₀ values of 3.73 and 1.56, respectively. Linear double log regressions of oxygen consumption vs. dry weight were derived at each temperature and regression coefficients (b) of 0.2723 (8.5° C), 0.4364 (15° C) and 0.4171 (20° C) were obtained. The results are explained and discussed in relation to previous work on the energetics of ciliated protozoa.     

Energy budgets for Stentor coeruleus Ehrenberg (Ciliophora)

Summary Growth and feeding rates in Stentor coeruleus fed on Tetrahymena are described in relation to prey concentrations ranging from 10:1–50:1 at 15°C and 20°C. Feeding rate was independent of temperature, but governed by prey concentration. Stentor decreased in size where less than 1,000 J were consumed in 24 hrs. A maximum level of growth was attained at 15°C, but not at 20°C within the range of prey concentration offered. Energy budgets, constructed using respiratory data published elsewhere (Laybourn, 1975), are presented. Assimilation efficiencies ranged from 74.4–76.4% at 20°C and 65.1–83.2% at 15°C. Gross growth efficiencies were between 70.9–73.6% at 20°C and 63.7–81.6% at 15°C. Net growth efficiencies were very high, 95.6–96.3% at 20°C and 97.5–97.9% at 15°C. The results are explained and discussed in relation to other Protozoa.     

Growth, survival, and starvation resistance of Colorado squawfish larvae

Synopsis Growth and survival of Colorado squawfish, Ptychocheilus lucius, larvae under fluctuating 18, 22, and 26° C (5° C diel fluctuations) and constant 18, 22, 26° C, and 30° C temperature conditions and ration size corresponding to 12.5, 28,64,142, 320 brine shrimp nauplii fish^–1 day^–1 determined from laboratory experiments. Growth was optimal at 31° C and high at temperatures of 26° C to 30° C, at the highest food abundance. Lowest growth was under lowest food rations and highest temperatures. Growth of Colorado squawfish larvae declined substantially at temperatures < 22° C. Neither growth nor survival was significantly different between fluctuating or constant regimes. Survival of Colorado squawfish larvae was highest (95%) at 26.2° C and 235 nauplii fish^–1 day^–1 and high at temperatures of 20 to 30° C with food abundance > 180 nauplii fish^–1 day^–1. Survival was lowest when food abundance was low and temperature was high. Highest mortality occurred more than 20 days after experiments began and mortalities occurred sooner in higher than lower temperatures. Colorado squawfish larvae denied food for 5, 10, or 15 d after first feeding could have begun (6 d), had survival greater than 87 % which was equivalent to continuously fed controls. Survival of fish denied food for 17.5 d after feeding could have begun declined from 84% before feeding to 57% after feeding. Point of no return was estimated between 17.5 and 20 d. Colorado squawfish have relatively high starvation resistance. Low, stable flows that simulate natural hydrographs may enhance growth, survival, and recruitment of early life stages of Colorado squawfish by increasing water temperature and food abundance in regulated rivers of the Colorado River basin.     

Temperature aspects of ecological bioenergetics in Brachionas angularis (Rotatoria)

The influence of temperature and food quality was studied on the following energy balance parameters of B. angularis: ingestion, production, growth and mortality. The ingestion rate rises to an optimum at 15 and 20 °C and decreases at 25 °C. The other rates increase continuously over the 5–25 °C range. The Q₁₀-values of production rate are higher than those of ingestion rate. Temperature also modifies the relationship between food concentration and bioenergetic rates. They react according to a Monod function (production at all temperatures, growth at 10 °C) or decrease at high concentrations (growth at 15° and 20 °C.)     

Respiratory energy losses in the protozoan predator Didinium nasutum Müller (Ciliophora)

Summary Respiration in Didinium nasutum, an active protozoan predator, was investigated in relation to cell weight at 10, 15, and 20° C by means of cartesian diver microrespirometry. Oxygen uptake increased progressively over the 10–20° C temperature range; a table of Q ₁₀ related to weight is presented. Regression coefficients of log weight versus log oxygen uptake (b) were 0.96 at 10° C, 0.98 at 15° C and 1.00 at 20° C. D. nasutum was shown to expend very much higher levels of respiratory energy than a mainly sedentary carnivorous ciliate of comparable weight.     

Effect of temperature,hydrogen ion concentration and osmotic potential on oospore germination of fivePythium spp. isolated from pond water

Oospore germination occurred over a temperature ranging of 15–35°C forPythium coloratum, 10–35°C forP. diclinum, 15–30°C forP. dissotocum, 7–30°C forP. monospermum, and 10–30°C forP. pleroticum. Optimum temperature was 25°C for all species tested. In case of pH, oospore germination occurred over a range of 4.76–8.55 with an optimum of 6.40–7.40. The least germination occurred at pH 4.76 forP. coloratum, P. diclinum, P. monospermum andP. pleroticum, whileP. dissotocum germinated from pH 5.02. Oospores of the all tested pythia were able to germinate at –0.13 to –1.65 MPa and could not germinate at –3.40 MPa, with the highest germination rate at –0.27 to –0.47 MPa. The effect of temperature, pH and osmotic potential on oospore germination was discussed in relation to pollution of pond water.     

Towards an understanding of human impact upon the hydrology of Lake Naivasha,Kenya

The growth of a strain of Moina macrocopa (Straus 1820) isolated from an experimental stabilization pond in Marrakesh, was examined at seven concentrations of algae (6.25–6.25 × 10⁵ cells ml^–1 and at 5 different temperatures (15–30 °C)). Feeding conditions influenced the growth rate as well as the maximum size that reached 1.8 mm at 25 °C and at the highest algal concentration (6.25 × 10⁵ cell ml^–1). The life span and number of moltings reached a maximum (17.4 days and 13 moltings) at average nutrient concentrations (6.25 × 10⁵ cell ml^–1). Juvenile stages varied from 1 to 3 and adult ones from 6 to 8. In the temperature interval tested, growth rate increased with temperature while longevity decreased. Temperature had less effect on maximal size than nutrient availability. Population density (but not crowding) influenced longevity and survival but had no effect on growth.     

Effect of acute pH depression on the survival of the freshwater amphipod Hyalella azteca at variable temperatures: field and laboratory studies

Field observations on temperature and pH of a small pond showed that a amphipod population of Hyalella azteca was exposed to variable seasonal pH between 5.10–5.85, and water temperatures between 2–21 °C. Laboratory experiments were designed to simulate seasonal temperatures and field pHs of a small pond habitat. Laboratory bioassay experiments were conducted to determine the survival of Hyalella azteca at pHs 4, 5, 6 and 7, and varying temperatures of 5°, 10°, 15°, 20° and 25 °C.The LT₁₀₀ at pH 4 and 25 °C was 5.7 ± 0.47 days, compared to 47.3 ± 2.49 days at 5 °C. An Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) showed temperature was a significant (p > 0.0001) source of variation in the acute lethality of pH to H. azteca. A Duncans Multiple Range Test (DMRT) further showed that in laboratory experiments at pH 4, there was a significant difference ( = 0.01) between the LT_100s at 5°, 10°, 15° and 20 °C, but not between temperatures 20° and 25 °C.     

Influence of root temperature on growth of Pinus sylvestris,Fagus sylvatica,Tilia cordata and Quercus robur

One-year-old tree seedlings were incubated in a greenhouse from April to July, under natural daylight conditions, with their root systems at constant temperatures of 5, 10, 15, 20, 25, 30 and 35 °C and with the above ground parts kept at a constant air temperature of 18–20 °C. The course of height growth, total mass increment, root, shoot and leaf weight as well as leaf areas were measured. The results indicate that clear differences exist in the optimal root zone temperatures for various growth parameters in different tree species. Pinus sylvestris had a maximal height increment at about 5–10 °C and maximal total mass increment at 15 °C root temperature. In contrast, the optimum for Quercus robur was at 25 °C. Tilia cordata and Fagus sylvatica had their optima for most growth parameters at 20 °C. The root temperature apparently indirectly influenced photosynthesis (dry weight accumulation) and respiration loss. From the observed symptoms and indications in the literature it seems probable that a change in hormone levels is involved as the main factor in the described effects. Variation of root temperature had only an insignificant effect on bud burst and the time at which the shoots sprouted. Apparently species of northern origin seem to have lower root temperature optima than those of more southern origin. This is to be verified by investigation of other tree species.     

Enhancement of frost tolerance in olive shoots in vitro by cold acclimation and sucrose increase in the culture medium

The evaluation of frost tolerance in olive shoots in vitro has been successfully accomplished. The behavior of in vitro shoots at freezing temperatures was comparable to that of intact plants. Cold acclimation was found to increase frost tolerance in cv. Moraiolo and the LT₅₀ was about 4 °C lower compared to nonacclimated shoots. Damage in acclimated shoots occurred at –15 °C, whereas control shoots were damaged at –10 °C. Olive shoots were unable to withstand freezing temperatures of –20 °C, even when acclimated. The effects of sucrose were also determined. 6% (w/v) sucrose in the medium conferred the highest frost tolerance in both acclimated and nonacclimated plants.     

Growth and hyoscyamine production of ‘hairy root’ cultures of Datura stramonium in a modified stirred tank reactor

Summary The growth and hyoscyamine production of transformed roots of Datura stramonium have been examined in a modified 14-1 stirred tank reactor in both batch and continuous fermentations on media containing half or full strength Gamborg's B5 salts and at three different temperatures. Under a range of conditions, roots grown on half strength B5 salts with 3% w/v sucrose had a higher dry matter content (up to 8.3% w/w) and a higher hyoscyamine content (up to 0.52 mg·g^–1 wet weight) than roots grown on full strength B5 salts with the same level of sucrose (up to 4.6% w/w dry matter and up to 0.33 mg hyoscyamine g^–1 wet weight). Growth at 30°C was initially faster than at either 25°C or 35°C and by day 12, the drained weight of roots in the fermentor at 30°C was about fourfold greater than at 25°C and twice that at 35°C. The ultimate hyoscyamine levels attained (approximately 0.5 mg·g^–1 wet weight) were similar at both 25°C and 30°C but some 40% lower at 35°C. Final packing densities of 70% w/v were achieved for roots after 37 days growth at 25°C and the highest production rate of 8.2 mg hyoscyamine l^–1 per day was obtained for roots grown at 30°C. In continuous fermentation at 25°C, the release of hyoscyamine into the culture medium was low (less than 0.5% w/w of the total) but was up to sevenfold higher in fermentors operated at 30°C or 35°C. Offprint requests to: M. G. Hilton     

Respiratory studies on two small freshwater amoebae

The changes in respiration rate and mean cell volume induced by temperature within the range 10°C–25°C were investigated in two small species of freshwater amoebae,Saccamoeba limax Page andVannella sp. Mean cell volume varied in response to temperature, with maxima at 20°C inVannella sp. (10.15× 10³ (±1.80)m³ and 15°C inS. limax (9.08×10³ (±0.93)m³. Respiration rate increased over the temperature range investigated. The highest rates and the greatest rate of increase between temperatures occurred inVannella sp. Q₁₀ ranged between 0.12 and 1.33 inS. limax and between 1.77 and 7.36 inVannella sp. A regression of log oxygen uptake versus log cell volume incorporating the data of the present investigation and the data of other workers on amoeba respiration is presented, and the ecological significance and application of such data discussed.     

Temperature,light, and photoperiod responses of some Northeast American and West European endemic rhodophytes in relation to their geographic distribution

The relationship between distributional boundaries and temperature responses of some Northeast American and West European endemic and amphiatlantic rhodophytes was experimentally determined under varying regimes of temperature, light, and daylength. Potentially critical temperatures, derived from open ocean surface summer and winter isotherms, were inferred from distributional data for each of these algae. On the basis of the distributional data the algae fall within the limits of three phytogeographic groups: (1) the Northeast American tropical-to-temperate group; (2) the warm-temperate Mediterranean Atlantic group; and (3) the amphiatlantic tropical-to-warm temperate group. Experimental evidence suggests that the species belonging to the northeast American tropical-to-temperate group(Grinnellia americana, Lomentaria baileyana, andAgardhiella subulata) have their northern boundaries determined by a minimum summer temperature high enough for sufficient growth and/or reproduction. The possible restriction of 2 species (G. americana andL. baileyana) to the tropical margins may be caused by summer lethal temperatures (between 30 and 35 °C) or because the gradual disintegration of the upright thalli at high temperatures (>30 °C) promotes an ephemeral existence of these algae towards their southern boundaries. Each of the species have a rapid growth and reproductive potential between 15–30 °C with a broad optimum between 20–30 °C. The lower limit of survival of each species was at least 0 °C (tested in short days only). Growth and reproduction data imply that the restrictive distribution of these algae to the Americas may be due to the fact that for adequate growth and/or reproduction water temperatures must exceed 20 °C. At temperatures 15 °C reproduction and growth are limited, and the amphiatlantic distribution through Iceland would not be permitted. On the basis of experimental evidence, the species belonging to the warm-temperate Mediterranean Atlantic group(Halurus equisetifolius), Callophyllis laciniata, andHypoglossum woodwardii), have their northern boundaries determined by winter lethal temperatures. Growth ofH. equisetifolius proceeded from 10–25 °C, that ofC. laciniata andH. woodwardii from 5–25 °C, in each case with a narrow range for optimal growth at ca. 15 °C. Tetrasporelings ofH. woodwardii showed limited survival at 0 °C for up to 4 d. For all members of the group tetrasporangia occurred from 10–20 °C. The southern boundary ofH. equisetifolius andC. laciniata is a summer lethal temperature whereas that ofH. woodwardii possibly is a winter growth and reproduction limit. Since each member of this group has a rather narrow growth and survival potential at temperatures <5 °C and >20 °C, their occurrence in northeast America is unlikely. The (irregular) distribution ofSolieria tenera (amphiatlantic tropical-to-warm temperate) cannot be entirely explained by the experimental data (possibly as a result of taxonomic uncertainties).Paper presented at the Seaweed Biogeography Workshop of the International Working Group on Seaweed Biogeography, held from 3–7 April, 1984 at the Department of Marine Biology, University of Groningen (The Netherlands). Convenor: C. van den Hoek.     

Low Temperature Stimulates Cell Enlargement and Intracellular Calcification of Coccolithophorids

Temperature effect on growth, cell size, calcium uptake activity, coccolith production was studied in coccolith-producing haptophytes, Emiliania huxleyi (Lohmann) Hay & Mohler (strain EH2) and Gephyrocapsa oceanica Kamptner (strain GO1) (Coccolithophorales, Prymnesiophyceae). E. huxleyi grew at a wider temperature range (10°–25°C), while G. oceanica growth was limited to warmer temperatures (20°–25°C). Cell size was inversely correlated with temperature. At low temperature, the enlargement of chloroplasts and cells and the stimulation of coccolith production were morphologically confirmed under fluorescent and polarization microscopes, respectively. ⁴⁵ Ca uptake by E. huxleyi at 10°C was greatly increased after a 5-day lag and exceeded that at 20°C. These results clearly showed that low temperature suppressed coccolithophorid growth but induced cell enlargement and as stimulated the intracellular calcification that produces coccoliths.     

Growth and biochemical composition with emphasis on the fatty acids of Tetraselmis sp.

Summary The influence of temperature (15–32°C) and the ratio of nitrogen to phosphorus (N/P) in the culture medium (0.5–80) on the growth kinetics and protein, chlorophyll, lipid and fatty acid content of the marine microalga Tetraselmis sp. have been studied. Below an N/P of 20, growth was determined by N limitation and above 20 by P limitation. Protein increased with a rise in N content at any test temperature. The chlorophyll content increased with temperature, with maximum values at 25°C. The lipid content decreased with increasing N/P ratio above 20°C. The polyunsaturated fatty acid content tends to be inversely proportional to the growth rate within the N/P range 20–80. The quotient of the n ₃ and n ₆ polyunsaturated-fatty-acid fractions, an indicator of the nutritive value of microalgae, was found to be within the range 2–3. These values were obtained either between 25 and 28°C independent of the N/P ratio used at 20°C for N/P ratios higher than 40.0. Offsprint requests to: Emilio Molina     

Effect of incubation temperature on zearalenone production by strains of Fusarium crookwellense

After 6 weeks incubation on rice 2 strains of Fusarium crookwellense produced more zearalenone (6060–5010 mg/kg dry wt of culture) at ambient temperature (16–29°C) in daylight than at ambient temperature (18–23 °C) in darkness or at controlled temperatures of 11 °C, 20 °C or 25 °C in darkness. Yields at 25 °C were low. Incubation at 11 °C during the second 3 weeks incubation increased yields only when preliminary incubation had been at 25 °C. After 6 weeks incubation at controlled temperatures in darkness, 4 strains produced most zearalenone at 20 °C (2460-21 360 mg/kg), 1 strain at 11 °C (6570 mg/kg). Yields at a temperature oscillating daily from 10–20 °C were less than at 15 °C. One of the 5 strains produced appreciable amounts of a-zearalenol (1645 mg/kg at 20°C) and 2 of nivalenol (340 and 499 mg/kg at 20 °C).     

Survival of adults and developmental stages ofSarcoptes scabiei var.canis when off the host

All life-stages ofSarcoptes scabiei var.canis survive in the hosts' environment for several days to several weeks depending on r.h. and temperature. Survival of larvae was comparable to males; survival of nymphs was comparable to females. Females and nymphs generally survived longer than larvae and males.Low temperature (10–15°) and high r.h. prolonged survival of all life stages. At 10–15°C, females and nymphs survived 1–3 weeks at 97% r.h., 1–2 weeks at 75% r.h. and 5–8 days at 45% r.h. At 20–25°C, survival was significantly reduced but all life-stages survived at least 2 days at 25% r.h. and 5–6 days at 75–100% r.h. Long survival off the host coupled with host-seeking behavior of these mites make it likely that environmental contamination is a source of scabies in domestic and wild mammals, and in humans.