Marine actinobacteria: perspectives, challenges, future directions

In this paper we evaluate the current state of research on the biology biotechnology of marine actinobacteria. The topics covered include the abundance, diversity, novelty and biogeographic distribution of marine actinobacteria, ecosystem function, bioprospecting, and a new approach to the exploration of actinobacterial taxonomic space. An agenda for future marine actinobacterial research is suggested based upon consideration of the above issues.     

Comments on coral reef regeneration, bioerosion, biogeography, and chemical ecology: future directions

This paper represents a brief review of three processes operating on coral reefs and the results of studies of a fourth process, and how those results may be applied to the benefit of humankind. The areas are reef regeneration processes; bioerosion; dispersal, recruitment and biogeography of corals; and chemical ecology and natural products chemistry of reef organisms. Possible future directions for research will also be considered in each area. Regarding reef regeneration processes, coral reefs are degrading rapidly on a global scale due to over-fishing, fishing techniques causing habitat destruction, deforestation, mass mortalities of key reef species, nutrient enrichment and sedimentation. Seeding of reefs with the larvae of corals and other key reef organisms, such as echinoids, may help to promote and enhance reef regeneration in the future. Such techniques will be made possible by studies of the embryology, larval ecology, dispersal and recruitment processes, and related local physical oceanographic processes. Regarding bioerosion, both internal and external bioerosion are affected by grazers and predators. Bioerosion is also affected by nutrient enrichment, as shown through correlative studies (Great Barrier Reef) and studies of opportunity (Kaneohe Bay). Ongoing experiments such as ENCORE will help to answer questions about the role of dissolved nutrients in enhancing internal bioerosion. Questions still remain, however, regarding the role of particulates in promoting internal bioerosion and the resultant weakening of and negative growth in the reef framework. Regarding dispersal, recruitment and the biogeography of corals, it is now known that most species of coral reproduce via broadcasting, although there appear to be proportionally more brooders in the Caribbean than in the western Pacific. Differential extinctions in the western Pacific vs. the western Atlantic have contributed to the biogeographic distribution of corals we observe today and the concentric isoclines of species diversity in numerous reef organisms in the western Pacific. The role of reproductive mode in contributing to these patterns is, however, still not understood. Investigations into the roles of different larval longevities and reproductive modes may help us answer questions regarding their differential distribution and the potential effects of major perturbations such as global warming on future distributions. With respect to the chemical ecology of alcyonacean octocorals (soft corals), four functions have been determined thus far for secondary metabolites in this group, anti-predation, anti-competition (allelopathy), anti-fouling, and enhancement of reproductive success. Investigations of alcyonacean reproduction has revealed that it may be necessary for several secondary metabolites to be present simultaneously before a function may be realized or fully manifested. This raises questions regarding the manner in which novel compounds are tested by medical laboratories for bioactivity using a single compound. Simultaneously testing of multiple compounds derived from a single organism may be necessary in the future to reveal potential valuable synergistic bioactivity. Also, some novel secondary metabolites may have other valuable commercial applications, as is the case with the UV-absorbing compounds of corals and other reef organisms found on the Great Barrier Reef. In order to avoid overlooking medically or commercially valuable functions of these compounds, broader testing may be necessary.     

Novel actinobacteria from marine sponges

Actinobacteria exclusively within the sub-class Acidimicrobidae were shown by 16S rDNA community analysis to be major components of the bacterial community associated with two sponge species in the genus Xestospongia. Four groups of Actinobacteria were identified in Xestospongia spp., with three of these four groups being found in both Xestospongia muta from Key Largo, Florida and Xestospongia testudinaria from Manado, Indonesia. This suggests that these groups are true symbionts in these sponges and may play a common role in both the Pacific and Atlantic sponge species. The fourth group was found only in X. testudinaria and was a novel assemblage distantly related to any previously sequenced actinobacterial clones. The only actinobacteria that were obtained in initial culturing attempts were Gordonia, Micrococcus and Brachybacterium spp., none of which were represented in the clone libraries. The closest cultured actinobacteria to all the Acidimicrobidae clones from Xestospongia spp. are Microthrix parvicella and Acidimicrobium spp. Xestospongia spp. can now be targeted as source material from which to culture novel Acidimicrobidae to investigate their potential as producers of bioactive compounds. Isolation of sponge-associated Acidimicrobidae will also make it possible to elucidate their role as sponge symbionts.     

纤毛虫与藻类共生关系的研究现状与展望

纤毛虫与藻类的共生关系在水体环境中广泛存在并有着重要的生态功能。文章回顾了国内外纤毛虫与藻类共生研究的发展历程,主要介绍了纤毛虫与藻类共生的生态功能,以及显微观察与分子生物学技术在纤毛虫与藻类共生研究中的应用;阐述了包括草履虫与小球藻共生关系建立的4个过程及其互作机制、红色中缢虫与隐藻的共生关系、宿主与共生体之间的互作等内容;提出了纤毛虫与藻类共生研究中亟待解决的科学问题,包括草履虫食物泡膜(digestive vacuole, DV)与围藻膜(perialgal vacuole, PV)发挥作用的分子机制、红色中缢虫与隐藻共生关系的建立过程、红色中缢虫在共生过程中的功能作用等,并展望未来的研究方向。     

Arousing sleeping genes: shifts in secondary metabolism of metal tolerant actinobacteria under conditions of heavy metal stress

Numerous microbial habitats are strongly influenced by elevated levels of heavy metals. This type of habitat has developed either due to ore mining and metal processing or by pedogenesis above metal-rich base rocks. Most actinobacteria are soil-borne microbes with a remarkable capability for the synthesis of a broad variety of biologically active secondary metabolites. One major obstacle in identifying secondary metabolites, however, is the known phenomenon of sleeping gene clusters which are present, but silent under standard screening conditions. Here, we proceed to show that sleeping gene clusters can be awakened by the induction in heavy metal stress. Both, a chemical and a biological screening with extracts of supernatant and biomass of 10 strains derived from metal contaminated and non-contaminated environments was carried out to assay the influence of heavy metals on secondary metabolite patterns of metal tolerant actinobacteria. Metabolite patterns of cultures grown in complex and minimal media were compared to nickel (or cadmium) spiked parallels. Extracts of some strains grown in the presence of a metal salt displayed intense antibiosis against Escherichia coli, Mycobacterium smegmatis, Staphylococcus aureus and Candida albicans. Contrarily to the widely held opinion of metals as hindrance in secondary metabolism, metals thus can induce or enhance synthesis of possibly potent and medically relevant metabolites in metal tolerant strains. Hence, re-screening of existing strain libraries as well as identification of new strains from contaminated areas are valid strategies for the detection of new antibiotics in the future.     

<Emphasis Type="Italic">Acinetobacter</Emphasis> lipases: molecular biology,biochemical properties and biotechnological potential

Lipases (EC 3.1.1.3) have received increased attention recently, evidenced by the increasing amount of information about lipases in the current literature. The renewed interest in this enzyme class is due primarily to investigations of their role in pathogenesis and their increasing use in biotechnological applications [38]. Also, many microbial lipases are available as commercial products, the majority of which are used in detergents, cosmetic production, food flavoring, and organic synthesis. Lipases are valued biocatalysts because they act under mild conditions, are highly stable in organic solvents, show broad substrate specificity, and usually show high regio- and/or stereo-selectivity in catalysis. A number of lipolytic strains of Acinetobacter have been isolated from a variety of sources and their lipases possess many biochemical properties similar to those that have been developed for biotechnological applications. This review discusses the biology of lipase expression in Acinetobacter, with emphasis on those aspects relevant to potential biotechnology applications.     

基因组挖掘技术在海洋放线菌天然产物研究开发中的应用及展望

利用微生物的基因组信息预测其合成特定天然产物的潜能, 进而进行新化合物分离纯化和结构鉴定的基因组挖掘技术, 已经成为国内外研究的热点, 并在多种细菌和真菌的天然产物发现中得到成功应用。本文综述了基因组挖掘技术的最新进展, 包括生物信息分析和结构预测、基因组指导的天然产物的发现、沉默基因的激活和异源表达技术等, 以及我国学者开发的转录组挖掘技术, 并重点综述了影像质谱技术在基因组挖掘中的应用。目前对海洋放线菌进行基因组挖掘的研究还比较少, 而基因组挖掘技术的发展, 将极大地促进对海洋放线菌天然产物的发现和鉴定。未来除了充分挖掘可培养微生物的基因组, 对未培养微生物宏基因组的挖掘将进一步深入。此外, 除了开发利用基因组中合成天然产物的结构基因和调节基因, 还应该充分开发利用其他不同的遗传元件, 包括不同转录活性和响应不同环境条件和信号的启动子, 以及具有调节作用的RNA等。     

Helicobacter pylori chromosomal DNA replication: current status and future perspectives

Helicobacter pylori causes gastritis, gastric ulcer and gastric cancer. Though DNA replication and its control are central to bacterial proliferation, pathogenesis, virulence and/or dormancy, our knowledge of DNA synthesis in slow growing pathogenic bacteria like H. pylori is still preliminary. Here, we review the current understanding of DNA replication, replication restart and recombinational repair in H. pylori. Several differences have been identified between the H. pylori and Escherichia coli replication machineries including the absence of DnaC, the helicase loader usually conserved in gram-negative bacteria. These differences suggest different mechanisms of DNA replication at initiation and restart of stalled forks in H. pylori.     

Molecular phylogenetics and biogeography of Neotropical piping guans (Aves: Galliformes): Pipile Bonaparte, 1856 is synonym of Aburria Reichenbach, 1853

The Cracidae are Neotropical galliform birds with 11 genera currently recognized. To investigate the questioned validity of Pipile Bonaparte, 1856 and the monotypic Aburria Reichenbach, 1853 as separate genera, we gathered data from 2727 bp of mitochondrial DNA (cytochrome b, ND2 and control region) and 151 osteological characters. Our phylogenetic analyses of DNA sequences indicated that Aburria aburri is embedded within Pipile. Also, genetic distances between Aburria and any Pipile species are equivalent to the distances estimated for other congeneric cracid species, which genus status is not doubtful. Although the osteological characters do not have phylogenetic signal to solve the phylogenetic relationships at species level, five synapomorphies were found for Aburria and Pipile. Therefore, we suggest that Pipile should be merged with Aburria, which is the oldest described genus. We estimated that speciation in this group occurred in the Plio-Pleistocene, concordant with other birds, primates and rodents that have similar geographic distribution, and proposed a diversification hypothesis based on the occurrence of sea transgressions and the formation of the Amazon Lagoon. Therefore, we conclude that these palaeogeographic events may have contributed to Neotropical taxa diversification to a greater extent than previously suspected.     

梭菌属分类研究进展:现状和展望

目前构成梭菌属的微生物在系统发育和表型特征上不一致。多相分类数据表明,梭菌属物种之间差异大。大量基于16S rRNA 基因的系统发育研究表明,梭菌属应被限定为梭菌属类群I,作为狭义梭菌属(Clostridium sensu stricto)。尽管有这方面认识,梭菌属新物种仍持续增加,这些新物种并不能与梭菌属类群I 和标准种丁酸梭菌(C. butryicum)形成一致分支,引发梭菌属分类上的混乱。本文明确了梭菌属物种的范围,即只包括模式种和梭菌属类群I。此外,4 个物种念珠状真杆菌(Eubacterium moniliforme)、旋舞真杆菌(Eubacterium tarantellae)、最大八叠球菌(Sarcina maxima)和胃八叠球菌(Sarcina ventriculi)应被调至梭菌属,分别命名为念珠状梭菌(Clostridium moniliforme)、旋舞梭菌(Clostridium tarantellae)、最大梭菌(Clostridium maximum)和胃梭菌(Clostridium ventriculi)。一个新属哈撒韦氏菌属(Hathewaya)被提议成立,3 个梭菌属物种溶组织梭菌(Clostridium histolyticum)、泥渣梭菌(Clostridium limosum)和解朊梭菌(Clostridiumproteolyticum)重新归为溶组织哈撒韦氏菌(Hathewaya histolytica)、泥渣哈撒韦氏菌(Hathewaya limosa)和解朊哈撒韦氏菌(Hathewaya proteolytica),其中Hathewaya histolytica 为模式种。     

Evolution, biogeography, and the utility of mitochondrial 16s and COI genes in phylogenetic analysis of the crab genus Austinixa (Decapoda: Pinnotheridae)

This study used molecular data (mitochondrial 16s and COI) for the first time to explore evolutionary relationships among species of the pinnotherid crab genus Austinixa. Low levels of phylogenetic signal were detected for COI. High levels of phylogenetic signal were detected for 16s, indicating it is a more useful marker for inferring species level phylogenies in Austinixa. Phylogeographic patterns among species of Austinixa are consistent with allopatric speciation due to numerous climatic and oceanographic fluctuations during the last 5-6 my. In addition, all but two species have been derived since the closure of the Isthmus of Panama, a pattern consistent with hypotheses that the marine biota of the Caribbean and southeastern North America underwent a pulse of biotic turnover within the last 2-3 my. Austinixa aidae and Austinixa hardyi had identical 16s sequences, and differed by only 2 bp in COI, raising questions about the validity of A. hardyi as a distinct species.     

拟诺卡氏菌属放线菌研究进展

拟诺卡氏菌属是一个经典的丝状放线菌类群,在近十余年来获得了快速发展,目前已合格发表42个种、2个亚种。该菌群在土壤环境,尤其是天然高盐碱土样生境中广泛分布,同时从海洋、人居环境、临床样本、堆肥等生境中也能分离到。拟诺卡氏菌不仅能合成抗生素、酶抑制剂、生物表面活性剂等多种结构新颖的活性物质,而且还能产生多种具有潜在工业用途的酶,因此近年来引起了国内外学者的广泛关注。本文综述了拟诺卡氏菌分类学、生态分布与适应机制、代谢产物及遗传转化的研究进展,并对其研究趋势做了分析。     

Radiation, multiple dispersal and parallelism in the skinks, Chalcides and Sphenops (Squamata: Scincidae), with comments on Scincus and Scincopus and the age of the Sahara Desert

Phylogenetic analysis using up to 1325 base pairs of mitochondrial DNA from 179 specimens and 30 species of Chalcides, Sphenops, Eumeces, Scincopus and Scincus indicates that Sphenops arose twice independently within Chalcides. It is consequently synonymized with that genus. Chalcides in this broader sense originated in Morocco, diversifying into four main clades about 10 Ma, after which some of its lineages dispersed widely to cover an area 40 times as large. Two separate lineages invaded the Canary Islands and at least five main lineages colonized southern Europe. At least five more spread across northern Africa, one extending into southwest Asia. Elongate bodies with reduced limbs have evolved at least four times in Chalcides, mesic 'grass-swimmers' being produced in one case and extensive adaptation to life in loose desert sand in two others. In clade, Chalcides striatus colonized SW Europe from NW Africa 2.6 Ma and C. chalcides mainland Italy 1.4 Ma, both invasions being across water, while C. c. vittatus reached Sardinia more recently, perhaps anthropogenically, and C. guentheri spread 1200km further east to Israel. C. minutus is a composite, with individuals from the type locality forming a long independent lineage and the remaining ones investigated being most closely related to C. mertensi. In the Northern clade, C. boulengeri and C. sepsoides spread east through sandy habitats north of the Sahara about 5 Ma, the latter reaching Egypt. C. bedriagai invaded Spain around the same time, perhaps during the Messinian period when the Mediterranean was dry, and shows considerable diversification. Although it is currently recognized as one species, the C. ocellatus clade exhibits as much phylogenetic depth as the other main clades of Chalcides, having at least six main lineages. These have independently invaded Malta and Sardinia from Tunisia and also southwest Arabia C. o. humilis appears to have spread over 4000 km through the Sahel, south of the Sahara quite recently, perhaps in the Pleistocene. In the Western clade of Chalcides, C. delislei appears to have dispersed in a similar way. There were also two invasions of the Canary Islands: one around 5 Ma by C. simonyi, and the other about 7 Ma by the ancestor of C. viridanus+C. sexlineatus. C. montanus was believed to be related to C. lanzai of the Northern clade, but in the mtDNA tree it is placed within C. polylepis of the Western clade, although this may possibly be an artifact of introgression. The Eumeces schneideri group, Scincopus and Scincus form a clade separate from Chalcides. Within this clade, the geographically disjunct E. schneideri group is paraphyletic. One of its members, E. algeriensis is the sister taxon to Scincopus, and Scincus may also be related to these taxa. The phylogeny suggests Scincopus entered desert conditions in Africa, up to 9.6 Ma and the same may have been true of Scincus up to 11.7 Ma. Scincus appears to have diversified and spread into Arabia around 6 Ma. Dates of origin and divergence of these skinks, desert Chalcides and other squamates agree with recent geological evidence that the Sahara is at least 5-7 My old. The subspecies Chalcides viridanus coeruleopunctatus is upgraded to the species level as C. coeruleopunctatus stat nov., on the basis of its large genetic divergence from C. v. viridanus.     

Morphological redescriptions of four marine ciliates (Ciliophora: Cyrtophorida: Dysteriidae) from Qingdao, China

The morphology and infraciliature of four marine cyrtophorid ciliates isolated from Qingdao, China, were investigated. Based on the present work and on previous data, improved diagnoses for three rarely known species are provided: (1) Mirodysteria decora; small-sized marine Mirodysteria about 35–60 × 25–35 μm in vivo, oval in outline; body surface with two or three conspicuous dorsal spines and one caudal spine; three right kineties, the rightmost one extending dorso-apically; left frontal kineties reduced, each consisting of three basal bodies only; podite subcaudally positioned; two ventrally located contractile vacuoles. (2) Dysteria legumen; body oval with two longitudinal grooves on different plates; six right kineties, the rightmost two of which extend dorso-apically; two left frontal kineties and two ventrally located contractile vacuoles. (3) Dysteria proraefrons; body about 60 × 35 μm in vivo; six right kineties, the two rightmost of which extend dorso-apically and the leftmost one is considerably shortened; three left frontal kineties; two ventrally located contractile vacuoles. A population of D. derouxi with eight or nine right kineties is also briefly described. The current investigation further demonstrates high diversity and cosmopolitan distribution of this highly specialized group of benthic ciliates.     

Species of the parasitic genus Duboscquella are members of the enigmatic Marine Alveolate Group I

Small subunit ribosomal RNA gene sequences of Duboscquella spp. infecting the tintinnid ciliate, Favella ehrenbergii, were determined. Two parasites were sampled from different localities. They are morphologically similar to each other and both resemble D. aspida. Nevertheless, two distinct sequences (7.6% divergence) were obtained from them. Phylogenetic trees inferred from maximum likelihood and maximum parsimony revealed that these two Duboscquella spp. sequences are enclosed in an environmental clade named Marine Alveolate Group I. This clade consists of a large number of picoplanktonic organisms known only from environmental samples from various parts of the ocean worldwide, and which therefore lack clear characterization and identification. Here, we provide morphological and genetic characterization of these two Duboscquella genotypes included in this enigmatic clade. Duboscquella spp. produce a large number of small flagellated spores as dispersal agents and the presence of such small cells partially explains why the organisms related to these parasites have been detected within environmental genetic libraries, built from picoplanktonic size fractions of environmental samples. The huge diversity of the Marine Alveolate Group I and the finding that parasites from different marine protists belong to this lineage suggest that parasitism is a widespread and ecologically relevant phenomenon in the marine environment.     

Decline in non-native freshwater eels in Japan: ecology and future perspectives

The occurrence, distribution, and biological characteristics of non-native freshwater eels were analyzed using 5524 eels collected from 16 sites in Japan between 1997 and 2005. Three hundred seventy-four fishes (6.8%) were identified as non-native European eels, Anguilla anguilla, while the remainder (93.2%) were native Japanese eels, A. japonica. The European eel was found at 7 sites (44%), including 3 rivers, 2 freshwater lakes, one brackish lake, and one sea bay, suggesting a wide rage of habitat use. This variability of habitat use was also evidenced by the otolith microchemistry, which showed that they had lived in not only freshwater but also in seawater habitats. The sites with European eel were localized within the vicinity of southern Japan where a number of these eels were cultivated in the early 1970’s, suggesting that some had escaped from the culture ponds or were released intentionally into nearby natural waters. The large body size (mean total length: 803 mm), pigmented skin, enlarged eyes, and relatively matured gonads (mean gonad somatic index: 1.9) found in non-native European eels indicated that most had metamorphosed into the migratory silver phase, suggesting their ability to initiate spawning migration. However, the proportion of European eels in Mikawa Bay in 1997 was more than 12%, which decreased markedly to less than 2% after 2001, corresponding to the recent decline in import of European glass eels for aquaculture. This suggests that the population of European eels will decrease in Japanese waters in the future.     

The genus Cyphophthalmus (Arachnida, Opiliones, Cyphophthalmi) in Europe: a phylogenetic approach to Balkan Peninsula biogeography

In this study, we present phylogenetic data to characterize the relationships among sironids centered in the Balkan region, and use these results to discuss biogeographical aspects of sironid evolution. Analysis of ca. 4.5 kb of sequence data from three nuclear and two mitochondrial genes reveals monophyly of a Balkan clade for which we resurrect the name Cyphophthalmus, considered a junior synonym of Siro for over a century. This clade diversified into several groups, and at least three of them--the duricorius group, the serbicus group, and the minutus group--are well corroborated by the data as monophyletic lineages. The members of the different groups, mostly living in troglobitic environments, have diversified in overlapping geographic regions, with evidence of an eastern origin for the group. Our data also suggest that mitochondrial and nuclear genes are all contributing towards the final resolution of the combined analysis of the data.     

Phylogeny, biogeography, and species boundaries within the Alexandrium minutum group

The geographic range and bloom frequency of the toxic dinoflagellate Alexandrium minutum and other members of the A. minutum group have been increasing over the past few decades. Some of these species are responsible for paralytic shellfish poisoning (PSP) outbreaks throughout the world. The origins of new toxic populations found in previously unaffected areas are typically not known due to a lack of reliable plankton records with sound species identifications and to the lack of a global genetic database. This paper provides the first comprehensive study of minutum-group morphology and phylogeny on a global scale, including 45 isolates from northern Europe, the Mediterranean, Asia, Australia and New Zealand.Neither the morphospecies Alexandrium lusitanicum nor A. angustitabulatum was recoverable morphologically, due to large variation within and among all minutum-group clonal strains in characters previously used to distinguish these species: the length:width of the anterior sulcal plate, shape of the 1′ plate, connection between the 1′ plate and the apical pore complex, and the presence of a ventral pore. DNA sequence data from the D1 to D2 region of the LSU rDNA also fail to recognize these species. Therefore, we recommend that all isolates previously designated as A. lusitanicum or A. angustitabulatum be redesignated as A. minutum. A. tamutum, A. insuetum, and A. andersonii are clearly different from A. minutum on the basis of both genetic and morphological data.A. minutum strains from Europe and Australia are closely related to one another, which may indicate an introduction from Europe to Australia given the long history of PSP in Europe and its recent occurrence in Australia. A minutum from New Zealand and Taiwan form a separate phylogenetic group. Most strains of A. minutum fit into one of these two groups, although there are a few outlying strains that merit further study and may represent new species. The results of this paper have greatly improved our ability to track the spread of A. minutum species and to understand the evolutionary relationships within the A. minutum group by correcting inaccurate taxonomy and providing a global genetic database.     

Zooplankton grazing on Phaeocystis: a quantitative review and future challenges

The worldwide colony-forming haptophyte phytoplankton Phaeocystis spp. are key organisms in trophic and biogeochemical processes in the ocean. Many organisms from protists to fish ingest cells and/or colonies of Phaeocystis. Reports on specific mortality of Phaeocystis in natural plankton or mixed prey due to grazing by zooplankton, especially protozooplankton, are still limited. Reported feeding rates vary widely for both crustaceans and protists feeding on even the same Phaeocystis types and sizes. Quantitative analysis of available data showed that: (1) laboratory-derived crustacean grazing rates on monocultures of Phaeocystis may have been overestimated compared to feeding in natural plankton communities, and should be treated with caution; (2) formation of colonies by P. globosa appeared to reduce predation by small copepods (e.g., Acartia, Pseudocalanus, Temora and Centropages), whereas large copepods (e.g., Calanus spp.) were able to feed on colonies of Phaeocystis pouchetii; (3) physiological differences between different growth states, species, strains, cell types, and laboratory culture versus natural assemblages may explain most of the variations in reported feeding rates; (4) chemical signaling between predator and prey may be a major factor controlling grazing on Phaeocystis; (5) it is unclear to what extent different zooplankton, especially protozooplankton, feed on the different life forms of Phaeocystis in situ. To better understand the mechanisms controlling zooplankton grazing in situ, future studies should aim at quantifying specific feeding rates on different Phaeocystis species, strains, cell types, prey sizes and growth states, and account for chemical signaling between the predator and prey. Recently developed molecular tools are promising approaches to achieve this goal in the future.     

Marine Ornamental Trade in Brazil

Brazil is one of the five leading exporting countries of tropical aquarium fishes in the world, and the interest in marine ornamental organisms has increased substantially there from the mid to the late 1990s. About 120 reef fish species are currently harvested in Brazil's ornamental trade. Among the 75 most harvested species, 26 (34.7%) are endemic, eight (10.7%) are rare, and six (8.2%) are estuarine-dependent species. Fifty-five species (75.3%) have complex reproductive strategies and/or parental care. In quantitative terms, the top 10 species comprises 62% of the species exported from Brazil to the USA and the European Community. The most harvested reef invertebrates include about 65 species. The most representative groups are crustaceans with 15 species (23%), and molluscs and stony corals with 10 species (15.4%) each. Among these, 15 (23%) are endemics, nine (13.8%) are rare species, and seven (10.8%) are important reef builders. A case of local extinction of the giant anemone Condylactis gigantea is reported. To alleviate ecological impacts a series of urgent measures is suggested, including the creation of specific laws for marine ornamental harvesting and improving law enforcement to prevent illegal trade in Brazil.