Growth regulation in X-irradiated mouse skin; the possible role of chalones.

Extracts of hairless mouse skin were tested for their content of epidermal G1 inhibitor and G2 inhibitor at daily intervals after X-irradiation with 4 500 or 2 250 rad. After either dose the skin extracts lacked G1 inhibitory activity on days 5 and 6 respectively after irradiation. This coincided with the time when the epidermal mitotic rate again became normal and started a period of over-shoot. The time interval of 5-6 days corresponds to the turnover time of the differentiating cells in hairless mouse back epidermis. The findings indicate that the proliferating cells in epidermis can respond to changes in local chalone concentration, even after X-irradiation at the tested doses, and that the irradiated epidermal cell population still retains some important properties inherent in a cybernetically regulated system. The local G2-inhibitory activity also varied after irradiation, but these variations could not be directly related to the corresponding mitotic rates.     

Inhibition by epidermal extracts of the 12-O-tetradecanoylphorbol-13-acetate induced peak of ornithine decarboxylase activity in the mouse epidermis

The time course of induction of epidermal ornithine decarboxylase (E.C. 4.1.117) (ODC) activity following a single topical application of 17 nmoles of 12-O-tetradecanoylphorbol-13-acetate (TPA) on hairless mouse skin was established. Prior intraperitoneal (i.p.) administration of a crude epidermal extract prepared from hairless mouse epidermis led to a time-dependent, 50% inhibition of the peak level of TAP-induced ODC activity. Maximum inhibition was observed when the extract was injected 1.5 h before TPA treatment. The crude epidermal extract did not affect ODC activity in vitro. Following the administration of epidermal extracts, the inhibition of the TPA-induced ODC-response correlated positively with the presence of epidermal G2-chalone activity (determined by a stathmokinetic method) whereas myocardial, skeletal muscle, or heat-inactivated epidermal extracts with no epidermal G2-chalone activity, had no effect on TPA-induced ODC activity. These results indicate a possible relationship between ODC-activity and the control of mitotic rate by G2-chalone.     

EPIDERMAL REGENERATION AFTER CELLOPHANE TAPE STRIPPING OF HAIRLESS MOUSE SKIN

After repeated applications of cellophane tape to the dorsal skin of hairless mice, the proliferative response in the treated epidermis was estimated by three different methods. The mitotic rate was determined in the interfollicular epidermis using the Colcemid technique, and the DNA synthetic activity was estimated after ³H-thymidine injection by counting labelled interfollicular cells in autoradiographs and by determining the specific activity of epidermal DNA. An initial 40–50% inhibition of DNA synthesis and mitosis was followed by an increase in the labelling index and the mitotic rate 8–10 hr after tape stripping. By 24 hr, peak values 5–6 times the controls were attained for both parameters. The labelling index and the mitotic rate were nearly normal at 3–4 days, but a second small peak was seen on day 5. Normal values were found on days 6 and 8. A similar pattern of response was found biochemically, but the peak of DNA specific activity was much broader and the extent of the increase was only about half as great as the increase in the labelling index. Possible reasons for these differences are discussed.     

Effect of mechanical stimulation on cell proliferation in mouse epidermis and on growth regulation by endogenous factors (chalones).

Mechanical stimulation of dorsal mouse skin by skin massage or removal of the horny layer results in a mutually comparable increase in DNA-labelling and mitotic activity. However, only after injury such as removal of the horny layer hyperplasia develops. This phenomenon, called "hyperplastic transformation" is characterized by a transient abolition of the epidermal G1 chalone responsiveness. There is some indication that the susceptibility to a heat labile factor, probably the epidermal G2 chalone, is not affected. Skin massage neither interferes with the responsiveness to epidermal G1 chalone nor induces "hyperplastic transformation". Mouse tail epidermis shows a "functional hyperplasia" and responds to the G1 chalone. To explain these observations, it is assumed that the epidermal stem cell population is heterogeneous consisting of G1 chalone-sensitive and G1 chalone-insensitive cells.     

Effects of hydroxyurea on the mitotic activity and the G2 phase in hairless mouse epidermis

Hairless mice were given 5 mg hydroxyurea (HU) intraperitoneally (i.p.) followed by 0.15 mg Colcemid at various times after HU. The animals were killed at 2 and 4 hr after Colcemid, the epidermal mitotic counts in dorsal skin were determined and the mitotic rates calculated. These were compared with the normal mitotic rates, and the ratios between the results from HU-treated and -untreated animals were calculated. Hydroxyurea caused a considerable reduction in the mitotic rate with a trough at 6 hr, followed by a wave of increased mitotic rate with a peak at 14 hr, followed by a secondary drop at 20 hr, and then a return to normal. Another group of mice were given HU only, and the fraction of epidermal cells in G2 was measured by flow cytometry. From these animals, without previous injection of Colcemid, we also determined the mitotic counts and calculated the mitotic durations. Cells piled up in G2 for the first 6 hr after HU injection, then the G2 compartment was emptied. The results are discussed in relation to previous results from this department showing the effect of the same dose of HU on DNA synthesis in the same mouse strain. It is concluded that HU not only blocks or retards DNA synthesis in epidermal cells, but also affects the movement of cells through G2 and M. The cell kinetic effects of HU thus seem to be very complex.     

The effect of the epidermal G2 chalone on the mitotic duration in nude mouse epidermis and in a transplanted squamous cell carcinoma.

Balb/c/nu nude mice transplanted with a moderately differentiated squamous cell carcinoma were injected intraperitoneally with different doses of aqueous skin extracts containing the epidermal G2 chalone. The mitotic counts and the mitotic rates were determined in histological sections using a stathmokinetic method with vinblastine sulphate. The mitotic duration was calculated from the mitotic rates and counts. Skin extracts containing epidermal G2 chalone increased the mitotic duration in the epidermis, and a similar trend was seen in the tumour. The higher the dose of chalone, the longer the mitotic duration tended to be. A straight line of best fit used to indicate the dose/response relationship was steeper for the epidermis than for the tumour. The study thus shows that the epidermal G2 chalone not only prevents epidermal cells from entering mitosis, it also prolongs the mitotic duration. Further, the results do not contradict the theory that tumour cells may be less sensitive to chalone than normal cells.     

PDE2 Is a Novel Target for Attenuating Tumor Formation in a Mouse Model of UVB-Induced Skin Carcinogenesis

Our previous studies demonstrated that the topical application of caffeine is a potent inhibitor of UVB-induced carcinogenesis and selectively increases apoptosis in tumors but not in non-tumor areas of the epidermis in mice that are at a high risk for developing skin cancer. While this effect is mainly through a p53 independent pathway, the mechanism by which caffeine inhibits skin tumor formation has not been fully elucidated. Since caffeine is a non-specific phosphodiesterase inhibitor, we investigated the effects of several PDE inhibitors on the formation of sunburn cells in mouse skin after an acute exposure to ultraviolet light B (UVB). The topical application of a PDE2 inhibitor, erythro-9-(2-hydroxy-3-nonyl) adenine hydrochloride (EHNA hydrochloride), stimulated epidermal apoptosis compared to control (P<0.01) and to a greater extent than caffeine whereas a PDE4 inhibitor attenuated the epidermal apoptosis compared to control (P<0.01). Since PDE2 hydrolyzes cyclic nucleotides, mainly cGMP, the effects of EHNA hydrochloride on epidermal apoptosis following UVB exposure may be mediated, in part, by increased cGMP signaling. Data demonstrated that the topical application of dibutyryl cGMP stimulated epidermal apoptosis (P<0.01) following an acute exposure to UVB. Treating UVB-pretreated mice topically with 3.1 µmole or 0.8 µmole of EHNA hydrochloride attenuated tumor formation to a greater extent than treating with 6.2 µmole caffeine when these compounds were applied once a day, five days a week for 18 weeks. These observations suggest a novel role for PDE2 in UVB-induced tumorigenesis and that PDE2 inhibitors that mediate cGMP signaling may be useful for the prevention and treatment of skin cancer.     

Epidermal chalones and squamous cell carcinomas. The growth inhibitory effects of aqueous epidermal extracts (G1 and G2 chalones) on the epidermis and on a transplantable keratinizing carcinoman in nude mice.

Balb/c/nu nude mice that had been transplanted with a moderately differentiated squamous cell carcinoma were injected i.p. with different doses of epidermal chalone, and control animals were injected with saline. The labelling indices (H3TdR) and the mitotic rate (stathmokinetic method with vinblastine sulphate) were determined. In the untreated animals, both the labelling index and the mitotic rate of the tumor were considerably higher than in the epidermis, and the rate of cell birth was almost twice that of the epidermis. Higher doses of chalone were needed to reduce the labelling index for the tumour than for the epidermis, and there was generally a less pronounced dose/response relationship in the tumours than in the epidermis. The same was true of the mitotic rate but here the results were not as obvious as for the labelling index. A possible explanation of the results may be that the tumour cells are less sensitive than epidermal cells to the injected chalones, or that reduced vascularization of the transplanted tumour may lead to reduced access of chalone, or that tumour necrosis may pay a role. However, it is evident that the tumour cells react less than the epidermis to both the G1 and the G2 chalone, and thus the findings of this study do not provide any evidence against the theory that epidermoid transplanted tumours are less sensitive to epidermal chalones than normal tissue of the same histogenetic origin.     

Specificity of epidermal chalone extracts for human epidermoid tumour cells in vitro: a preliminary report.

In order to test the mitosis-inhibiting effect and the tissue specificity of the epidermal G2 chalone for tumour cells, extracts from hairless mouse epidermis were tested in short-term tissue cultures of cells from human respiratory tract epidermoid carcinomas and adenocarcinomas. The chalone inhibited strongly the mitotic activity in two cases of histologically proven epidermoid carcinoma, and had no effect in two cases of adenocarcinoma. In one case of a supposed epidermoid carcinoma, the chalone had no effect. Revision of the histology, and the result of autopsy 11 months later, showed that in this case the lesion in the lung had been a poorly differentiated metastasis from an adenocarcinoma of the ovary. Liver extracts produced in the same way as the epidermal extracts showed no mitotic inhibition in any of the cultures. These results indicate that epidermal G2 chalone produced from mouse skin is tissue specific for human epidermoid tumour cells, and also indicate that a chalone test might be used as a diagnostic tool for poorly differentiated carcinomas to see whether they are of epidermoid origin or not.     

Subpopulations of slowly cycling cells in S and G2 phase in mouse epidermis

Evidence has been presented supporting the existence of heterogeneity in cell-cycle progression in mouse epidermis, The present study was undertaken to characterize this heterogeneity in more detail. Hairless mice were continuously labelled with tritiated thymidine every 4 hr for 4 days. Basal cell suspensions were prepared from slices of mouse skin at intervals during the experiment and subjected to DNA flow cytometry. Cell-cycle analysis was combined with sorting of cells from windows in G1, S and G2 phase, and the proportion of labelled cells within each window was determined in autoradiographs. Reanalysis and resorting to control the purity of of sorted fractions were performed. Computer simulations of the data were made using a mathematical model assuming different S and G2 phase characteristics. A good fit to the data was only obtained when heterogeneity in mouse epidermal cell-cycle progression was assumed, indicating the existence of slowly traversing, distinct subpopulations of cells in G2 and S phase. These cells are assumed to contribute to about 40% of all cells in S phase and to about 70% of all in G2 phase. The estimated residence times in the resting states were 38 and 32 hr in S and G2 phase, respectively. Two-parameter sorting based on DNA and light scatter indicated that slowly cycling cells were larger than the average. There is no evidence of significant subpopulations of permanently non-proliferating keratinocytes in any of the cell-cycle phases.     

Purification and characterization of a growth inhibitory hepatic peptide. A preliminary note

A pentapeptide isolated from normal mouse liver seems to inhibit DNA synthesis (3H-thymidine incorporation into liver DNA and labeling indices) and the mitotic rate (G2-M cell flux) in regenerating mouse liver. The inhibitor is somewhat similar to the growth inhibitory pentapeptides previously reported for granulocytes and epidermis. It is active at very low dose levels, showing a bell-shaped dose-response curve.     

Proliferation-dependent effect of skin extracts (chalone) on mouse epidermal cell flux at the G1-S, S-G2 and G2-M transitions

Epidermal cell proliferation in mice was studied from 4 to 11 h following a single intraperitoneal (IP) injection of a crude skin extract. Cell cycle flux parameters were evaluated by a combination of several methods. The G1-S and S-G2 transit rates were estimated by means of a 3(H)TdR double labelling technique, and the mitotic rate by use of colcemid. The 3(H)TdR labelling index was also measured. To examine the possible influence of the circadian rhythm, all experiments were performed at two different times of the day with high or low rate, respectively, of epidermal cell proliferation. All flux parameters were altered for the whole 7-h period. The relative inhibitory effect of the skin extract was related to the proliferative state of the epidermal cell population. Cell flux at the G1-S transition showed only minor circadian variations, and treatment with skin extract was followed by a relative reduction of cell flux at this transition that was similar at the two times of the day investigated. In contrast, cell flux at the S-G2 transition showed pronounced circadian variations. The effect of the skin extract on cells at this transition was different at the two times in the 24-h period. In general, inhibition expressed as percent of the controls was stronger when the skin extract was given at times when the cell flux was low or decreasing, and vice versa. In spite of the changes in flux values following administration of a skin extract, the 3(H)TdR labelling indices were reduced only after a delay of 10 h, confirming previous results.     

Postnatal development of the skin of the marsupial native cat Dasyurus hallucatus

Skin development of the Northern native cat was examined from birth to weaning at 150 days post partum. An outer layer of cells, termed the periderm or epitrichium, is present on the epidermis of the newborn. This layer of cells is not discernible at 7 days post partum. Skin development of the native cat differs from that of the eutherian mammal. The periderm of the eutherian is no longer discernible when the developing hairs first penetrate the epidermis. In the marsupial, this loss of the periderm occurs well before the appearance of follicles. Melanocytes and Langerhans cells are seen at day 23 post partum, follicles at day 30, sebaceous glands at day 59, and sweat glands at day 67. Thus, when the mother first leaves her young in the nest at about days 60 to 70 of lactation, the skin is at a stage of development that will assist the young with thermoregulation. The skin continues to develop throughout lactation and attains an adult appearance by day 150 post partum.     

Removal of the Horny Layer Does Not Stimulate Cell Proliferation In Neonatal Mouse Epidermis

Mechanical treatment of newborn mouse back skin by removal of the horny layer does not stimulate DNA synthesis and mitotic activity. These results are discussed in connection with recent experiments with newborn and adult mouse epidermis, and reveal further evidences for the ontogenetic development of an endogenous growth control (chalones).     

Skin Abnormalities in Mice Transgenic for Plasminogen Activator Inhibitor 1: Implications for the Regulation of Desquamation and Follicular Neogenesis by Plasminogen Activator Enzymes

Plasminogen activator enzymes have been implicated in the regulation of growth, migration, and differentiation which occur continually in normal epidermis and cyclically in the hair follicle. To elucidate further the importance of plasminogen activation in epidermal physiology, studies were conducted using mice transgenic for human plasminogen activator inhibitor 1 (PAI-1). The epidermis of the newborn (4-7 days) transgenic mice was flaky and showed delayed hair growth compared to that of their control littermates. Histologic analyses revealed a greatly thickened stratum corneum in the transgenics. By 2 weeks after birth, no differences in epidermal morphology were apparent between transgenic and control littermates. Using in situ hybridization, immunocytochemistry, and in situ reverse zymography techniques, epidermal PAI-1 expression was correlated temporally with the aberrant epidermal morphology. These data implicate plasminogen activator activity in the regulation of epidermal shedding and follicular neogenesis.     

Accelerated proliferation and abnormal differentiation of epidermal keratinocytes in endo-beta-galactosidase C transgenic mice

Transgenic (TG) mice that have systemically expressed endo-beta-galactosidase C (EndoGalC) have rough and flaky skin. This skin phenotype is detectable around 5 days postnatal and becomes obscure by 2 weeks after birth. Their epidermis is thickened but the dermis and hair follicles are normal in structure. EndoGalC, which removes the terminal Galalpha1-3Gal disaccharide (alphaGal epitope), was expressed in the epidermis of TG mice. GS-IB4 lectin staining showed that the alphaGal epitope did not exist in the epidermis in TG but existed in wild-type (WT) mice. In TG mice, N-acetylglucosamines were exposed by EndoGalC, which is detected using GS-II lectin. To understand the cause of the epidermal thickening and skin phenotype, we examined the proliferation and differentiation of kerationocytes. BrdU-pulse-labeling revealed that proliferating keratinocytes increased approximately three-fold in TG epidermis compared to WT one. In TG epidermis, the expression domain of cytokeratin 14 increased from 1-2 layers to 4-5 layers and co-expressed with cytokeratin 6 and 10 in the upper layers. The layers expressing involucrin and loricrin also increased but those expressing filaggrin and transglutaminase looked normal. The localization of E-cadherin was similar in both TG and WT mice. Although TG mice showed delayed development of the barrier function around 8 days postnatal, they acquired the function by 12 days after birth. These results suggest that the absence of the alphaGal epitope or the exposed N-acetylglucosamine terminal could play a critical role in the proliferation of basal keratinocytes and differentiation of them into the spinous cells in newborn mice.     

Linoleate content of epidermal acylglucosylceramide in newborn, growing and mature mice

Epidermis was collected from newborn, growing and adult mice. Acylglucosylceramide, a structurally unique O-acylsphingolipid, was isolated from each sample, and the ester-linked fatty acids were analyzed by capillary column gas-liquid chromatography. The esterified acids of acylglucosylceramide from newborn mice contained 12% linoleate. The linoleate content of the acylsphingolipid increased rapidly, doubling within 4 days and reaching an adult level of 45% within 2 months. The increase in the linoleate content of the epidermal lipid was accompanied by decreases in 16-carbon monoenoic fatty acids and saturated fatty acids ranging from 14 up to and including 24 carbons in length. These results indicate several potential problems for experimentation involving neonatal skin. Also, the possibility that neonatal mouse epidermis may provide a useful model system for studies on the relationship between linoleic acid and epidermal cell proliferation is also raised.     

Involvement of follicular stem cells in forming not only the follicle but also the epidermis

The location of follicular and epidermal stem cells in mammalian skin is a crucial issue in cutaneous biology. We demonstrate that hair follicular stem cells, located in the bulge region, can give rise to several cell types of the hair follicle as well as upper follicular cells. Moreover, we devised a double-label technique to show that upper follicular keratinocytes emigrate into the epidermis in normal newborn mouse skin, and in adult mouse skin in response to a penetrating wound. These findings indicate that the hair follicle represents a major repository of keratinocyte stem cells in mouse skin, and that follicular bulge stem cells are potentially bipotent as they can give rise to not only the hair follicle, but also the epidermis.     

Temporal and spatial dimensions of postnatal growth of the mouse urinary bladder urothelium

Postnatal growth and renewal of mouse urothelium start on the day of birth. In the present study, temporal and spatial dimensions of urothelial growth were studied during the first two postnatal weeks. Quantitative analysis showed that the rate of urothelial cell proliferation is significantly higher during all 14 postnatal days than in adult mice. Three peaks of proliferative and mitotic activity were revealed: on the day of birth and postnatal day 1, on days 6 and 7, and on day 14. The high proliferation rate around the day of birth and at postnatal days 6 and 7 coincides with cell death in the urothelium. Semiquantitative analysis showed that during all 14 postnatal days, the urothelial proliferative response is mostly confined to the basal cell layer. Urothelial cells divide predominantly in parallel to the plain of the urothelium on all chosen postnatal days. Increased portions of urothelial cells, dividing perpendicularly to the urothelium were observed only on the day of birth and on postnatal day 7. Our results suggest that postnatal growth of mouse urothelium is particularly the result of an increasing number of cells in individual cell layers and not the result of an increasing number of cell layers.     

Dendritic cell migrations involving the pilosebaceous unit in the development of murine skin

Over the lint week of postnatal life, dermal dendritic cells stream upwards to invade the epidermis of the mouse tail and back skin. Their migrations seem associated with the development of distinct types of epidermal physiology:ortho- and parakeratosis. Changes from neonatal epidermal morphology occur at similar times in both back and tail skin. The hairv mouse back skin is alwavs orthokeratotic, but the initially orthokeratotic tail epidermis later becomes parakeratolir in the scale regions, remaining orthokeratotic in areas of hair production.
Dermal cells studied were adenosine triphosphatase (ATPase)-, non-specific esterase (NSE)-, naphthvl AS-D chloroacetate-, and dihydroxyphenvlalanine (dopa)-positive dendritic cells. The results are discussed in connection with hair growth and glabrous epidermal kcratinization. Dendritic cell regulation of epidermal physiology involving the dermis and pilosebaceous unit is discussed in relation to reviewed work on mesenchymal-epithelial interactions in animal and human skin.