Mechanistic basis of differences in water-use efficiency between a CAM and a C3 species of Peperomia (Piperaceae)

Under ecologically realistic environmental conditions, the water-use efficiency (WUE) of Peperomia scandens , a CAM plant, was higher than that of the C₃ congener P. obtusifolia . This difference has been attributed to differences in stomatal activity between C₃ and CAM plants, coupled with differences in the evaporative demand of the atmosphere during which the stomata are open. This explanation has apparently not, however, been experimentally tested. Thus, WUEs were compared in these species in two experiments in which the atmospheric evaporative demand was identical (or nearly so) during the period of stomatal opening (i.e. during the night for the CAM plant and during the day for the C₃ species). In both experiments, the WUE of the CAM species was higher than that of the C₃ species. These results suggest that factors other than differences in atmospheric environmental conditions must also be responsible for the observed differences in WUE. Because CO₂ uptake rates of the CAM species were substantially lower than those of the C₃ species, the lower WUE in the CAM species resulted primarily from lower transpiration rates. Lower rates of water loss in P. scandens , relative to rates in P. obtusifolia , were ascribed, in part, to lower stomatal densities. Thus, leaf morphological differences, in addition to differences in atmospheric evaporative demand, help to explain the high WUE typically measured in CAM plants.     

Glomales SSUrRNA gene diversity

The arbuscular mycorrhiza (AM) is one of the most important symbioses on earth, formed between about 80% of vascular plants and AM fungi (Smith & Read, 1997), which are placed in the order Glomales (Morton & Benny, 1990). A discussion has recently arisen about the rDNA-gene and general genome organization of this fungal group, which, as far as is known, does not possess sexuality (Sanders, 1999). This discussion mainly arose as a result of the assumption that one spore of an AM fungus ( Scutellospora castanea ) contains small subunit (SSU) rRNA genes that belong, phylogenetically, to different families within the Glomales, namely the Gigasporaceae and Glomaceae (Hosny et al ., 1999). Questions about genetic drift, infrequent recombination, concerted evolution and the validity of phylogenetic techniques have arisen (Hosny et al ., 1999; Sanders, 1999). However, this assumption might well be based on the sequence of an Ascomycete contaminant.     

Shifts in the optimal temperature for nocturnal CO2 uptake caused by changes in growth temperature for cacti and agaves

When the day/night air temperatures were raised from 10°C/10°C to 30°C/30°C, the optimal tempearture for nocturnal CO² uptake by six species of cacti and three species of agave shifted from an average of 12°C to an average of 20°C. The maximum rate of CO² uptake was higher for Agave americana at the higher ambient temperature, lower for A. deserti , and much lower for A. utahensis , consistent with the relative mean temperatures of their native habitats. For the cactus Coryphantha vivipara , which had the greatest temperature shift observed (13°C), the halftime was 8 days for the upward shift and 4 days for the downward shift. The halftimes for the comparable shifts averaged 1.6 days for three other species of cacti and less than 1 day for two agave species. The shifts in the optimal temperature for nocturnal CO² uptake were in response to changes in nighttime temperature, at least for C. vivipara , and reflected temperature responses of both the stomates and the chlorenchyma.     

Expression of P-Enolpyruvate Carboxylase and other Aspects of CAM during the Development of Peperomia camptotricha Leaves

During the development of Peperomia camptotricha leaves, metabolism changes from C₃-photosynthesis to Crassulacean acid metabolism (CAM). The youngest leaves showed no diurnal fluctuation of organic acids or P-enolpyruvate carboxylase (PEPc) activity. There was little evidence for PEPc protein using PEPc antibodies prepared from the CAM form of PEPc, nor was there evidence for PEPc mRNA when tested using a cDNA probe made from CAM P. scandens. As leaves matured, there was a parallel increase in titratable acidity, PEPc activity, PEPc protein, and PEPc mRNA. In leaf whorls 1 through 6, there was a significant linear correlation between the diurnal fluctuation of organic acids and PEPc activity indicating a functional relationship. The specific activity of PEPc increased as leaves matured and the K_m (PEP) decreased indicating that the enzyme was becoming more active. The ratio of PEPc protein to PEPc mRNA decreased as leaves matured. During the expression of CAM, the spongy mesophyll where most of the CAM activity occurs increased in thickness and per cent air space, whereas the palisade mesophyll where most of the C₃ activity occurs did not increase in size dramatically. The diurnal fluctuation of organic acids and the expression of PEPc activity, protein, and mRNA increased as the thickness of the spongy mesophyll increased. During the expression of CAM in Peperomia camptotricha, there appears to be coordinated expression of PEPc mRNA, protein, and activity, the commencement of diurnal organic acid fluctuation, and the development of the CAM-like spongy mesophyll. Thus the evidence suggests that CAM in this species is expressed during normal development and not in response to environmental signals.     

The effect of different growth conditions on dark and light carbon assimilation in Littorella uniflora

The effect of long-term exposure to different inorganic carbon, nutrient and light regimes on CAM activity and photosynthetic performance in the submerged aquatic plant, Littorella uniflora (L.) Aschers was investigated. The potential CAM activity of Littorella was highly plastic and was reduced upon exposure to low light intensities (43 μmol m⁻² s⁻¹), high CO₂ concentrations (5.5 mM, pH 6.0) or low levels of inorganic nutrients, which caused a 25–80% decline in the potential maximum CAM activity relative to the activity in the control experiments (light: 450 μmol m⁻² s⁻¹; free CO₂: 1.5 mM). The CAM activity was regulated more by light than by CO₂, while nutrient levels only affected the activity to a minor extent. The minor effect of low nutrient regimes may be due to a general adaptation of isoetid species to low nutrient levels.
The photosynthetic capacity and CO₂ affinity was unaffected or increased by exposure to low CO₂, irrespective of nutrient levels. High CO₂, low nutrient and low light, however, reduced the capacity by 22–40% and the CO₂ affinity by 35-45%, relative to control.
The parallel effect of growth conditions on CAM activity and photosynthetic performance of Littorella suggest that light and dark carbon assimilation are interrelated and constitute an integrated part of the carbon assimilation physiology of the plant. The results are consistent with the hypothesis that CAM is a carbon-conserving mechanism in certain aquatic plants. The investment in the CAM enzyme system is beneficial to the plants during growth at high light and low CO₂ conditions.     

Photosynthetic Characteristics of the Palisade Mesophyll and Spongy Mesophyll in the CAM/C4 Intermediate Plant,Peperomia camptotricha*

Several photosynthetic parameters were examined in the different tissue layers of leaves from the recently characterized crassulacean acid metabolism/C₄ intermediate plant, Peperomia camptotricha (Nishio and Ting, 1987). Light appears to control the development of certain photosynthetic characteristics within the tissue layers, while factors other than light seem to dictate others. Analysis of the chlorophyll content (including P700) and chlorophyll-proteins indicated that more light harvesting chlorophylls were associated with reaction centers in the tissues that were shaded by overlying tissue. Electron transport activity and chlorophyll-protein analysis indicated that the ratio of photosystem I to photosystem II in the spongy mesophyll (the abaxial tissue type and hence most shaded) was elevated relative to the overlying chlorophyll-rich median palisade mesophyll. The elevated photosystem I relative to photosystem II in the spongy mesophyll of Peperomia camptotricha may be related to C₄ metabolism and an increased requirement for ATP.     

不同季节中香荚兰叶片的光合作用特征

通过对生长于人工阴蔽下香荚兰(Vanilla planifolia)不同部位叶片的气体交换、可滴定酸度和叶绿素含量等四个不同季节的观测,较为详细地研究了叶龄和光合作用类型之间的关系及其季节性的变化规律。成熟叶片在四个季节中表现为稳定的景天酸代谢(CAM),且光期有较长时间的CO_2吸收,几乎无CO_2向外释放,有显著的昼夜酸度波动。幼叶以C_3代谢为主,但在较高昼夜温差和较低空气相对湿度的条件下也能进行CAM代谢,且不同季节中表现了不同程度的酸积累。我们认为,香荚兰叶片随叶龄的增长有一个从C_3代谢到CAM代谢的光合作用途径的转移,幼叶在对环境因子变动的反应中也有一个类似的转移现象。叶片的光合作用能力也表现了季节性的差异,尤其对温度反应敏感,低温季节(日均温<20℃),CO_2的固定作用大大减弱。     

Stomatal responses to light in the facultative Crassulacean acid metabolism species, Portulacaria afra

Guard cell responses to light are mediated by guard cell chlorophyll and by a specific blue light photoreceptor. Gas exchange and epidermal peel techniques were employed to investigate these responses in the facultative Crassulacean acid metabolism (CAM) species, Portulacaria afra (L.) Jacq. In P. afra individuals performing C₃ metabolism, red light stimulated an increase in leaf conductance in intact leaves and stomatal opening in isolated epidermal peels, indicating the presence in guard cells of the chlorophyll-mediated response to light. Under a background of continuous red illumination, conductance exhibited transient increases following pulses of blue but not red light, indicating that the specific stomatal response to blue light was also operative. In contrast, in CAM individuals, conductance in gas exchange experiments and stomatal opening in epidermal peel experiments were not stimulated by red light. In CAM plants, conductance did not increase following blue light pulses administered over a range of temperatures, vapor pressure differences (VPD), ambient CO₂ concentrations and background red light intensities. These results indicate that P. afra does possess typical guard cell responses to light when performing C₃ metabolism. The metabolic pathways mediating these responses are either lost or inhibited when CAM is induced.     

Photosynthetic studies with mesophyll protoplasts from Notonia grandiflora, a crassulacean acid metabolism plant

A method is described for rapid enzymatic isolation of mesophyll protoplasts and cells from the crassulacean acid metabolism (CAM) plant Notonia grandiflora DC. The mesophyll protoplasts exhibited high rates of ¹⁴CO₂ fixation both in the light (45 μmol of CO₂ fixed mg^?1 Chl h^?1) and in the dark (20 μmol of CO₂ fixed mg^?1 Chl h^?1). The protoplasts also showed O₂ evolution (40 μmol of O₂ evolved mg^?1 Chl h^?1) without added bicarbonate. Exogenously added bicarbonate had no stimulating effect on the O₂ evolution. Analyses of early photosynthetic products in the light showed the formation of both C₃ and C₄ acids. Aspartate was found to be a predominant photosynthate.     

植物气孔对全球环境变化的响应及其调控防御机制

气孔是植物与环境发生联系的重要门户,控制着植物与外界的气体和水分交换。本文针对全球大气CO2浓度升高、气候变暖、干旱加剧等环境问题,分析了气孔对全球水循环、碳循环的重要贡献。系统总结了气孔的形态发育和生理功能对大气高CO2浓度、干旱、土壤盐渍化、病虫害等的响应及其调控防御机制。综述了脱落酸（ABA）、Ca2＋、H2O2、一氧化氮（NO）和光信号调控气孔运动的分子机制。从理论和实践两方面,提出了通过调控气孔运动协调CO2同化和水分散失的矛盾,在不影响光合效率的前提下提高水分利用率等未来的研究方向。     

Effects of abscisic acid on CAM in Portulacaria afra

Water stress induces Crassulacean acid metabolism (CAM) in Portulacaria afra as manifested by day stomatal closure, organic acid fluctuation, and night CO₂ uptake. We now have evidence that abscisic acid treatment of leaves causes partial stomatal closure that is accompanied by the induction of CAM in a manner similar to water stress. There appears to be an inverse relationship between exogenous CO₂ uptake and decarboxylation of organic acids in that organic acids remain high during the day providing stomata are open. When stomata close, there is consumption of organic acids by decarboxylation. The hypothesis is that stomatal opening controls CAM in this species.This material is based upon work supported by the Science and Education Administration of the USDA under Competitive Grant No. 5901-0410-8-0018-0.