植物类型III聚酮合酶超家族晶体结构与功能

植物类型Ⅲ聚酮化合物合酶(PKS)催化合成多种植物次生代谢产物的基本分子骨架,参与植物体许多重要生物学功能的行使,一直是研究蛋白结构与功能关系、基于结构进行分子改造的重要模式分子家族。目前在蛋白质数据库(PDB)中有超过80个不同种属来源的类型Ⅲ PKS的三维结构被报道,其中包括了研究最为透彻的查尔酮合酶在内的7种酶的晶体结构,这些结构的发表对于阐明该类酶复杂多变的底物专一性、链延伸和不同的环化反应机制奠定了结构基础。三维空间结构解析以及基于定点突变的结构功能分析是进行酶工程、基因工程的基础。以下系统综述了植物类型Ⅲ PKS超家族晶体结构和功能的研究进展。     

真菌聚酮合酶基因分离方法的研究进展

真菌聚酮合酶在代谢中可催化合成多种具有重要生物学活性的次级代谢物,所以真菌聚酮合酶正逐渐成为药学、食品科学和农学等领域的研究热点。本文综述了近五年来建立的几种分离真菌聚酮合酶基因的方法。这些方法解决了真菌中聚酮合酶基因簇难以分离的问题,为改造和利用真菌聚酮合酶以及发掘真菌聚酮化合物资源提供了强有力的手段。     

植物Ⅲ型聚酮合酶基因家族的分子进化分析

Ⅲ型聚酮合酶(type Ⅲ polyketide synthase,PKSⅢ)广泛存在于细菌、真菌和植物中,目前数据库中已积累了大量的序列资料。为了进一步了解植物Ⅲ型聚酮合酶基因家族的分子进化,以及其作为系统进化研究材料的可能性,选取了75条来自不同植物物种包括苔藓类植物、蕨类植物、裸子植物、单子叶植物和双子叶植物的PKSⅢ蛋白序列,用CLUSTAL X软件对其氨基酸序列进行了比对,并用邻位相接法构建了系统进化树。结果表明,尽管不同来源的PKSⅢ序列表现了很大的差异,但保守结构域CHS-like所包含的主要功能位点半胱氨酸(Cys184)、苯丙氨酸残基(Phe236和Phe286)、组氨酸残基(His335)、天冬酰氨残基(Asn369)在各植物物种中具有很好的保守性;同时发现,在植物PKSⅢ序列中多数的Cys位点均具有较好的保守性,而且蕨类植物PKSⅢ和单子叶植物PKSⅢ在Cys保守位点有很好的相似性;进一步构建分子进化树表明,PKSⅢ基因基本上首先根据功能而聚类,明显地划分为CHSs和non-CHSs两类,其次按照不同的植物物种聚类。     

酮基合酶AlpRQ影响醌那霉素的产量

【背景】角蒽环类聚酮化合物醌那霉素生物合成基因簇包含了两套酮基合酶(KSα和KSβ)的编码基因,即alpA,alp B和alpR,alpQ,AlpA和AlpB被证明是醌那霉素合成过程中必需的酮基合酶,而AlpR和AlpQ则被认为与别的化合物的合成相关。【目的】鉴于alpR和alpQ和必需基因alpS在醌那霉素合成基因簇上紧密相邻,本研究旨在确定它们与醌那霉素生物合成的相关性。【方法】PCR-targeting在细菌人工染色体(BAC)文库质粒上进行多基因敲除,构建好的文库质粒再导入通用宿主Streptomyces albus J1074中进行异源表达,并用高效液相色谱(HPLC)检测突变株和野生型菌株的发酵产物。【结果】AlpR和AlpQ对醌那霉素的合成没有直接影响,但是敲除AlpRQ突变株的发酵液中醌那霉素的产量显著提高了。【结论】AlpR和AlpQ很有可能是另一Ⅱ型聚酮化合物的KS_α和KS_β,它们与AlpA和AlpB竞争共同的合成前体。本研究还证明了AlpR和AlpQ并不能替代AlpA和AlpB的功能。     

芳香聚酮后修饰氧化酶

氧化酶在芳香聚酮生物合成后修饰中普遍存在并对终产物的结构产生关键影响。本文简要总结了芳香聚酮后修饰氧化酶中几类最常见的氧化酶的结构和功能,并以杰多霉素生物合成途径中的后修饰氧化酶为例,阐明这些氧化酶在后修饰反应中发生作用的方式。并对后修饰氧化酶在组合生物学中的应用做了展望。     

三烷基取代芳香聚酮gombapyrones生物合成基因簇的确认及其生物合成推导

【目的】本研究旨在确认链霉菌Streptomyces rubellomurinus ATCC 31215来源芳香聚酮化合物(gombapyrones, GOMs)的生物合成基因簇(biosynthetic gene cluster, BGC),并对其生物合成途径进行推导。【方法】对链霉菌S. rubellomurinus ATCC 31215进行大规模发酵及提取分离,得到GOM-B和GOM-D;以三烷基取代芳香聚酮生物合成途径保守存在的P450单氧化酶的蛋白序列作为探针,在GOMs产生菌S. rubellomurinus基因组中进行BLAST搜索获得潜在的GOMs生物合成基因簇(gom BGC);通过对gom BGC中的聚酮合成酶(polyketide synthase, PKS)结构基因进行同框缺失突变,对突变株发酵产物进行高效液相色谱-质谱(highperformanceliquidchromatography-massspectrometry,HPLC-MS)分析以确认gomBGC与GOMs的产生相关;基于生物信息学分析,推导GOM-B的生物合成途径。【结果】从S. rubell...     

植物类型Ⅲ聚酮合酶超家族基因结构、功能及代谢产物

植物聚酮类化合物主要包括酚类、芪类及类黄酮化合物等,在植物花色、防止紫外线伤害、预防病原菌、昆虫危害以及作为植物与环境互作信号分子方面行使着重要的生物学功能。该类化合物具有显著多样的生物学活性,对人体保健及疾病治疗有显著意义。植物类型Ⅲ聚酮化合物合酶(PKS)在该类化合物生物合成起始反应中行使着关键作用,决定该类化合物基本分子骨架建成和代谢途径碳硫走向,为合成途径关键酶和限速酶。以查尔酮合酶为原型酶的植物类型Ⅲ PKS超家族是研究系统进化和蛋白结构与功能关系的模式分子家族,目前已经分离得到14种植物类型Ⅲ PKS基因,这些同祖同源基因及其表达产物既有共性,也表现出许多独特个性,这些个性赋予此类次生代谢产物结构上的多样性。以下综述了植物类型Ⅲ PKS超家族基因结构、功能及代谢产物研究进展。     

植物类型III聚酮合酶超家族基因结构、功能及代谢产物

植物聚酮类化合物主要包括酚类、芪类及类黄酮化合物等,在植物花色、防止紫外线伤害、预防病原菌、昆虫危害以及作为植物与环境互作信号分子方面行使着重要的生物学功能。该类化合物具有显著多样的生物学活性,对人体保健及疾病治疗有显著意义。植物类型III 聚酮化合物合酶 (PKS) 在该类化合物生物合成起始反应中行使着关键作用,决定该类化合物基本分子骨架建成和代谢途径碳硫走向,为合成途径关键酶和限速酶。以查尔酮合酶为原型酶的植物类型III PKS超家族是研究系统进化和蛋白结构与功能关系的模式分子家族,目前已经分离得到14种植物类型III PKS基因,这些同祖同源基因及其表达产物既有共性,也表现出许多独特个性,这些个性赋予此类次生代谢产物结构上的多样性。以下综述了植物类型III PKS超家族基因结构、功能及代谢产物研究进展。     

基于定点突变的植物Ⅲ型聚酮合酶结构与功能研究进展

植物Ⅲ型聚酮合酶(Polyketide synthases,PKSs)催化形成一系列结构迥异、生理活性不同的聚酮类化合物的基本骨架结构,是聚酮类化合物生物合成途径的关键酶。目前已从植物中克隆和鉴定了多种功能不同的Ⅲ型PKSs。定点突变技术是研究蛋白质结构与功能之间复杂关系的重要方法。文中综述了近年来基于定点突变的植物Ⅲ型PKSs结构与功能关系的研究进展,包括利用定点突变技术修饰各种可能影响植物Ⅲ型PKSs结构的氨基酸残基,来研究其对功能的影响(如控制起始底物的特异性、缩合反应次数以及中间产物环化方式),以期为植物Ⅲ型PKSs结构与功能关系的研究提供参考。     

顺式和反式-AT型聚酮合酶研究进展及应用

聚酮类化合物因广泛应用于医药等方面而被大家所熟知,Ⅰ型聚酮合酶（Polyketide Synthase,PKS）在催化聚酮类化合物的生物合成中起着重要的作用。根据不同的酰基转移酶（Acyltransferase,AT）结构域,I型PKS可分为顺式-AT （cis-Acyltransferase,cis-AT）型PKS和反式-AT （trans-Acyltransferase,trans-AT）型PKS,目前cis-AT型PKS研究得比较透彻,trans-AT型PKS相关研究成为当今热点。本文总结了cis-AT型PKS和trans-AT型PKS的联系与区别、工程进展、相关应用以及目前存在的问题,以期为了解cis-AT型PKS和trans-AT型PKS在聚酮化合物合成中的作用提供参考。     

Episodic positive selection during the evolution of naphthalene dioxygenase to nitroarene dioxygenase

Using different maximum-likelihood models of adaptive evolution, signatures of natural selective pressure, operating across the naphthalene family of dioxygenases, were examined. A lineage- and branch-site specific combined analysis revealed that purifying selection pressure dominated the evolutionary history of the enzyme family. Specifically, episodic positive Darwinian selection pressure, affecting only a few sites in a subset of lineages, was found to be responsible for the evolution of nitroarene dioxygenases (NArDO) from naphthalene dioxygenase (NDO). Site-specific analysis confirmed the absence of diversifying selection pressure at any particular site. Different sets of positively selected residues, obtained from branch-site specific analysis, were detected for the evolution of each NArDO. They were mainly located around the active site, the catalytic pocket and their adjacent regions, when mapped onto the 3D structure of the α-subunit of NDO. The present analysis enriches the current understanding of adaptive evolution and also broadens the scope for rational alteration of substrate specificity of enzyme by directed evolution.     

Clues fromXanthomonas campestris about the evolution of aromatic biosynthesis and its regulation

Summary The recent placement of major Gramnegative prokaryotes (Superfamily B) on a phylogenetic tree (including, e.g., lineages leading toEscherichia coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, andAcinetobacter calcoaceticus) has allowed initial insights into the evolution of the biochemical pathway for aromatic amino acid biosynthesis and its regulation to be obtained. Within this prokaryote grouping,Xanthomonas campestris ATCC 12612 (a representative of the Group V pseudomonads) has played a key role in facilitating deductions about the major evolutionary events that shaped the character of aromatic biosynthesis within this grouping.X. campestris is likeP. aeruginosa (and unlikeE. coli) in its possession of dual flow routes to bothl-phenylalanine andl-tyrosine from prephenate. Like all other members of Superfamily B,X. campestris possesses a bifunctional P-protein bearing the activities of both chorismate mutase and prephenate dehydratase. We have found an unregulated arogenate dehydratase similar to that ofP. aeruginosa inX. campestris. We separated the two tyrosine-branch dehydrogenase activities (prephenate dehydrogenase and arogenate dehydrogenase); this marks the first time this has been accomplished in an organism in which these two activities coexist. Superfamily B organisms possess 3-deoxy-d-arabino-heptulosonate 7-P (DAHP) synthase as three isozymes (e.g., inE. coli), as two isozymes (e.g., inP. aeruginosa), or as one enzyme (inX. campestris). The two-isozyme system has been deduced to correspond to the ancestral state of Superfamily B. Thus,E. coli has gained an isozyme, whereasX. campestris has lost one. We conclude that the single, chorismate-sensitive DAHP synthase enzyme ofX. campestris is evolutionarily related to the tryptophan-sensitive DAHP synthase present throughout the rest of Superfamily B. InX. campestris, arogenate dehydrogenase, prephenate dehydrogenase, the P-protein, chorismate mutase-F, anthranilate synthase, and DAHP synthase are all allosteric proteins; we compared their regulatory properties with those of enzymes of other Superfamily B members with respect to the evolution of regulatory properties. The network of sequentially operating circuits of allosteric control that exists for feedback regulation of overall carbon flow through the aromatic pathway inX. campestris is thus far unique in nature.     

Control of intracellular heme levels: Heme transporters and heme oxygenases

Heme serves as a co-factor in proteins involved in fundamental biological processes including oxidative metabolism, oxygen storage and transport, signal transduction and drug metabolism. In addition, heme is important for systemic iron homeostasis in mammals. Heme has important regulatory roles in cell biology, yet excessive levels of intracellular heme are toxic; thus, mechanisms have evolved to control the acquisition, synthesis, catabolism and expulsion of cellular heme. Recently, a number of transporters of heme and heme synthesis intermediates have been described. Here we review aspects of heme metabolism and discuss our current understanding of heme transporters, with emphasis on the function of the cell-surface heme exporter, FLVCR. Knockdown of Flvcr in mice leads to both defective erythropoiesis and disturbed systemic iron homeostasis, underscoring the critical role of heme transporters in mammalian physiology.     

Role of oxygenases in pisatin biosynthesis and in the fungal degradation of maackiain

Some isolates of the plant pathogen Nectria haematococca detoxify the isoflavonoid phytoalexin (−)maackiain by hydroxylation at carbon 6a. Precursor feeding studies strongly suggest that the penultimate step in (+)pisatin biosynthesis by Pisum sativum is 6a-hydroxylation of (+)maackiain. We have used ¹⁸O labeling to test the involvement of oxygenases in these two reactions. When fungal metabolism of maackiain took place under ¹⁸O₂, the product was labeled with 99% efficiency; no label was incorporated by metabolism in H₂¹⁸O. Pisatin synthesized by pea pods in the presence of ¹⁸O₂ or H₂¹⁸O was a mixture of molecules containing up to three labeled oxygen atoms. Primary mass spectra of such mixtures were complex but were greatly simplified by tandem MS. This analysis indicated that the 6a oxygen of pisatin was derived from H₂O and not from O₂. Labeling patterns for the other five oxygen atoms were consistent with the proposed pathway for biosynthesis of pisatin and related isoflavonoids. We conclude that the fungal hydroxylation of maackiain is catalyzed by an oxygenase, but the biosynthetic route to the 6a hydroxyl of pisatin is unknown.     

Structural insights into the catalytic mechanism of aldehyde-deformylating oxygenases

The fatty alk(a/e)ne biosynthesis pathway found in cyanobacteria gained tremendous attention in recent years as a promising alternative approach for biofuel production. Cyanobacterial aldehyde-deformylating oxygenase (cADO), which catalyzes the conversion of Cn fatty aldehyde to its corresponding Cn-1 alk(a/e)ne, is a key enzyme in that pathway. Due to its low activity, alk(a/e)ne production by cADO is an inefficient process. Previous biochemical and structural investigations of cADO have provided some information on its catalytic reaction. However, the details of its catalytic processes remain unclear. Here we report five crystal structures of cADO from the Synechococcus elongates strain PCC7942 in both its iron-free and iron-bound forms, representing different states during its catalytic process. Structural comparisons and functional enzyme assays indicate that Glu144, one of the iron-coordinating residues, plays a vital role in the catalytic reaction of cADO. Moreover, the helix where Glu144 resides exhibits two distinct conformations that correlates with the different binding states of the di-iron center in cADO structures. Therefore, our results provide a structural explanation for the highly labile feature of cADO di-iron center, which we proposed to be related to its low enzymatic activity. On the basis of our structural and biochemical data, a possible catalytic process of cADO was proposed, which could aid the design of cADO with improved activity.     

Dynamic changes in expression of heme oxygenases in mouse heart and liver during hypoxia

Heme oxygenase cleaves heme to form biliverdin, carbon monoxide (CO), and iron, and consists of two structurally related isozymes, HO-1 and HO-2. HO-2 is also known as a potential oxygen sensor. Here we show that the relative CO content in arterial blood, which reflects the total amount of endogenous heme degradation, dynamically changes in mice during acclimatization to normobaric hypoxia (10% O2), with the two peaks at 1 day and 21 days of hypoxia. The expression levels of HO-1 and HO-2 proteins were decreased by 20% and 40%, respectively, in the mouse liver at 7 days of hypoxia, which returned to the basal levels at 14 days. On the other hand, HO-1 and HO-2 proteins were increased 2-fold and 1.3-fold, respectively, in the heart at 28 days of hypoxia. Thus, hypoxia induces or represses the expression of HO-1 and HO-2 in vivo, depending on cellular microenvironments.     

The isolation and characterization of antibiotic biosynthesis genes

Antibiotic biosynthesis pathways are found in a broad range of Gram positive prokaryotes, a smaller range of Gram negative prokaryotes and a limited range of eukaryotes. A variety of techniques can be used to identify the genes involved in the biosynthesis of these compounds ranging from genetic complementation and interspecific gene transfer to polymerase chain reaction amplification and transposon mutagenesis. The dissection of these cloned pathways and the understanding of their structure and regulation has led to insights into the structure and function of antibiotic biosynthesis genes. With new knowledge of the structural similarities and relationships between related antibiotic biosynthesis pathways, the possibility of directed manipulation of specific genes to allow synthesis of novel antibiotics is now possible.     

Cloning and characterization of a bacterial iterative type I polyketide synthase gene encoding the 6-methylsalicyclic acid synthase

Unusual polyketide synthases (PKSs), that are structurally type I but act in an iterative manner for aromatic polyketide biosynthesis, are a new family found in bacteria. Here we report the cloning of the iterative type I PKS gene chlB1 from the chlorothricin (CHL) producer Streptomyces antibioticus DSM 40725 by a rapid PCR approach, and characterization of the function of the gene product as a 6-methylsalicyclic acid synthase (6-MSAS). Sequence analysis of various iterative type I PKSs suggests that the resulting aromatic or aliphatic structure of the products might be intrinsically determined by a catalytic feature of the paired KR-DH domains in the control of the double bond geometry. The finding of ChlB1 as a 6-MSAS not only enriches the current knowledge of aromatic polyketide biosynthesis in bacteria, but will also contribute to the generation of novel polyketide analogs via combinatorial biosynthesis with engineered PKSs.     

Functional characterization of O‐methyltransferases used to catalyse site‐specific methylation in the post‐tailoring steps of pradimicin biosynthesis

Aims

To identify the roles of the two O‐methyltransferase homologous genes pdmF and pdmT in the pradimicin biosynthetic gene cluster of Actinomadura hibisca P157‐2.

Methods and Results

Pradimicins are pentangular polyphenol antibiotics synthesized by bacterial type II polyketide synthases (PKSs) and tailoring enzymes. Pradimicins are naturally derivatized by combinatorial O‐methylation at two positions (i.e., 7‐OH and 11‐OH) of the benzo[α]naphthacenequinone structure. PdmF and PdmT null mutants (PFKO and PTKO) were generated. PFKO produced the 11‐O‐demethyl shunt metabolites 11‐O‐demethylpradimicinone II ( 1 ), 11‐O‐demethyl‐7‐methoxypradimicinone II ( 2 ), 11‐O‐demethylpradimicinone I ( 3 ) and 11‐O‐demethylpradimicin A ( 4 ), while PTKO generated the 7‐O‐demethyl derivatives pradimicinone II ( 5 ) and 7‐hydroxypradimicin A ( 6 ). Pradimicinones 1 , 2 , 3 , and 5 were fed to a heterologous host Escherichia coli harbouring expression plasmid pET‐22b::pdmF or pET‐28a::pdmT. PdmF catalysed 11‐O‐methylation of pradimicinones 1 , 2 , and 3 regardless of O‐methylation at the C‐7 position, while PdmT was unable to catalyse 7‐O‐methylation when the C‐11 hydroxyl group was methylated ( 5 ).

Conclusions

PdmF and PdmT were involved in 11‐O‐ and 7‐O‐methylations of the benzo[α]naphthacenequinone moiety of pradimicin, respectively. Methylation of the C‐7 hydroxyl group precedes methylation of the C‐11 hydroxyl group in pradimicin biosynthesis.

Significance and Impact of the Study

This is the first reported demonstration of the functions of PdmF and PdmT for regiospecific O‐methylation, which contributes to better understanding of the post‐PKS modifications in pradimicin biosynthesis as well as to rational engineering of the pradimicin biosynthetic machinery.