Studies on the recruitment of Sargassum spp. (Fucales: Phaeophyta) in Balibago,Calatagan, Philippines

Two separate 1?m² plots were cleared of algal cover every 3 or 4 wk for 1 yr and each time, one was filled with cleaned, sun-dried coralline rocks. These plots were closely monitored in subsequent months for any sign of Sargassum regrowth. Control plots were also monitored during the same period. New growth was first detected in December in cleared and control plots, 3 months after the start of the reproductive season for Sargassum spp. in the area. New growth was observed in the plots with coralline rocks in January, and only on rocks placed at least 3 months earlier. No new growth was observed in cleared and control plots after June, nor throughout the rest of the experimental period on rocks placed after October. Pre-conditioning of the coralline rocks appeared to be a prerequisite for settling of Sargassum germlings and the importance of timing in laying these rocks for successful colonization of Sargassum spp. is discussed.     

Plicatrium visayanensis new species (Digenea: Hemiuridae) from Hydrophis ornatus (Serpentes: Hydrophiidae) from the Visayan Sea,Philippines

Bush A. O. and Holmes J. C. 1984. Plicatrium visayanensis new species (Digenea: Hemiuridae) from Hydrophis ornatus (Serpentes: Hydrophiidae) from the Visayan Sea, Philippines. International Journal for Parasitology14: 35–38. A new species of hemiurid is described from a sea snake. The diagnosis of the genus Plicatrium is emended.     

Fish biology and fisheries ecology of the Salton Sea, California

Studies of the fisheries ecology and fish biology of the Salton Sea, California, were conducted in 1999 and 2000 using 50 m gill nets in river, nearshore, pelagic, and estuarine areas. Total lengths and weights were measured for all fish captured, and sub-samples were dissected for gonad weights and aging. Ten fish species were captured of which a hybrid tilapia (Oreochromis mossambicusx O. urolepis hornorum) was dominant by number and weight. Nearshore and estuarine areas had highest catch rates (over 11 kg h^–1 net^–1 for tilapia). Rivers were richest in the number of species (6 of 10 species were exclusively riverine), but lowest in fish abundance. Orangemouth corvina (Cynoscion xanthulus), bairdiella (Bairdiella icistia), sargo (Anisotremus davidsoni), and tilapia grew faster, but had shorter life spans than conspecifics elsewhere and Salton Sea conspecifics of 50 years ago. Reproduction occurred mostly in the nearshore and estuarine areas. Onset of reproduction of bairdiella and sargo was in the spring and extended through the beginning of summer. Reproduction of orangemouth corvina started in the summer and of tilapia in the spring. Reproduction of orangemouth corvina and tilapia extended through the fall. Gender ratios of tilapia were skewed toward males in all areas, except the rivers, where females predominated. All four species aggregated along the nearshore and estuarine areas in the summer when dissolved oxygen in the pelagic area was limited. Any restoration alternative for the Salton Sea should consider areas close to shore as primary areas for fish reproduction and survival.     

In situ management options to improve crucian carp (Carassius carassius,L.) and brown trout (Salmo trutta,L.) population status in Central Europe: A case study from the Czech Republic

The crucian carp (Carassius carassius, L.) and the brown trout (Salmo trutta, L.) are vanishing from freshwater ecosystems of central Europe. To conserve both species, tailor‐made conservation management of habitats and populations of both species was implemented and tested in the Czech Republic (central Europe). This management was adjusted to reflect the ecological needs of both species. This study aimed to describe the results of a tested in situ management and to analyze the population growth of brown trout and crucian carp under ideal conditions. An experiment was performed at 14 small gravel pit lakes. Seven of them were adjusted to fit the crucian carp habitat requirements while the other seven were treated as a control group. The same experiment was done on 14 smaller streams and with brown trout. The occurrence and growth of crucian carp and brown trout were surveyed over 2 years. A significantly faster growth of both crucian carp and brown trout was observed on the adjusted lakes and streams in comparison to the control group ones. Trout and carp prospered on small streams and gravel pit lakes (respectively) that were free of angling, fish stocking, pollution, piscivorous predators, and competition with hybridizing species like Prussian carp (Carassius auratus, L.) or hatchery‐reared brown trout.     

Two new endemic species of Ophiorrhiza L. (Rubiaceae: Ophiorrhizeae) from Davao Oriental,Philippines

Two new species of Ophiorrhiza collected from Mt Hamiguitan Range Wildlife Sanctuary in Davao Oriental, Philippines, are herein described and illustrated. Ophiorrhiza erythropilosa is the third Philippine species possessing involucral bracts and is further characterized by its predominantly villose stems that appear red due to strikingly red-violet trichomes, subpersistent bifid stipules, linear involucral bracts without prominent midrib, and 4 mm long urceolate corolla that is villose outside and lightly puberulous inside. Ophiorrhiza hamiguitanensis is characterized by its coriaceous, lanceolate leaves with attenuate apex and base, brochidodromous venation, subpersistent bilobed stipules with slightly recurved acute tips, presence of 1.5–2.5 mm long linear ensiform bracts, heterostylous flowers, clavate calyces and broadly obcordate capsules.     

Freshwater Ostracods (Crustacea: Ostracoda) of the Genus Cypretta VAVRA, 1895 from Malaysia,Indonesia and the Philippines

The genus Cypretta VAVRA, 1895 from Malaysia, Indonesia and the Philippines is reviewed. Currently, eleven species are known from these areas. Two new species are described and two species are redescribed. Remarks and diagnostic illustrations are given for the known species.     

Skull structure of the flying fish Cheilopogon pinnatibarbatus (Beloniformes, Exocoetidae)

The skull of the flying fish Cheilopogon pinnatibarbatus is first described in comparison with literature data on other four-winged flying fishes (subfamily Cypselurinae). The skull of Ch. pinnatibarbatus is characterized by the following features: (1) a multitude (about 40) of minute pores in the canal of the lateral line of the nasale; (2) a big opening in the roof of the myodome; (3) the lateral line canal of dentale by far does not reach the symphysis; (4) the tip of praeoperculum does not reach the upper edge of the hyomandibulare; (5) the posterior part of the angulare is weakly covered by the articulare and almost reaches from the outside the joint for articulation with the quadratum. Ppublished in Voprosy Ikhtiologii, 2007, Vol. 47, No. 3, pp. 284–291. This article was submitted by the authors in English.     

Growth parameters and total mortality in Oreochromis niloticus (Linnaeus) from Nyanza Gulf,Lake Victoria

Length-frequency data collected from fish landings in the Kenya waters of Lake Victoria were used to estimate the growth parameters, total mortality rate and growth performance index in Oreochromis niloticus. The asymptotic length, (L _∞) and the ratio of the total mortality rate (Z) to the growth constant (K), were estimated to be 64.6 cm and 3.219 respectively. K was 0.254 y^-1, Z was 0.818 y^-1 and the growth performance index θ′ = Log₁₀ K + 2 log₁₀ L∞ = 3.025, which is rather high as compared to other tilapia populations in natural waters.     

The first capture of the flying fish Cypselurus hiraii Abe, 1953 (Beloniformes: Exocoetidae) in waters of northern Primorye (Sea of Japan)

The first capture of the flying fish Cypselurus hiraii Abe, 1953 in waters of northern Primorye (Serebryanka Bay, 45°02′ N, 136°39′ E) is recorded, demonstrating the penetration of this warmth-loving species beyond its main range. The morphological features and coloration of a young specimen of 103 mm in TL are described.     

On the Population Ecology of the Zebra Seabream Diplodus cervinus cervinus (Lowe 1838) from the Coasts of the Canarian archipelago, North West Africa

Zebra seabream, Diplodus cervinus cervinus, caught off the Canary Islands is characterized by protogynous hermaphroditism. The male:female ratio is in favour of females (1:2.16). The reproductive season extends from spring to summer, with a peak in spawning activity in May–June. Males reach maturity at a larger total length, 327mm (5 years old) than females 273mm (4 years old). Recruitment occurs from late October to January in shallow waters of 0.5–8m depth along the coastal line. The recruits are located over rocky substrates with an important algae vegetation forming schools lower than 2m². During the spawning season, schools of adults from 3 to 8 fish are observed. The schools are formed by one large individual and a few moderate size individuals. Mating takes place in small groups formed by one dominant male and a group of several females (polygamy). Moderate size individuals are often observed mixed in large schools (up to 30 individuals) of Diplodus sargus cadenati. Subadults form groups of a few fish (<5 individuals) or more commonly mixed groups (>15 individuals) with individuals of species of similar size. Otoliths age readings indicate that the population consists of 18 age groups, including a very high proportion of individuals between 2 and 4 years old. The von Bertalanffy growth parameters for the whole population are: L = 603mm, k = 0.149 year^–1, and t₀ = –0.22 year. The mean rates of total, natural and fishing mortality are 0.551, 0.215 and 0.336 year^–1, respectively. The length at first capture is 183mm. The exploitation rate indicates that the stock is overfished. The direct effects of fishing on the population result in changes in the abundance, with a reduction to 85% of the unexploited equilibrium level. The length at first capture by the commercial fishery is less than the length at maturity. With 58% of the total catch below this length there is a danger of recruitment overfishing.     

Biology of the Sand Smelt, Atherina presbyter (Teleostei: Atherinidae), Off the Canary Islands (central-east Atlantic)

Atherina presbyter is a common fish off the Canary Islands. Age, growth, reproduction, and mortality of the species are studied based on sampling carried out from July 1995 to June 1996. The parameters of the total length–total weight relationship are: a=0.004521, and b=3.0771. Otoliths age readings indicate that the sampled population consists of four age groups (0–III years). The von Bertalanffy growth parameters for all individuals are: L=122mm total length, k=0.79year^–1, and t₀=–0.21 years. Individuals grow quickly in their immature first year, attaining approximately 60% of their maximum length. After the first year, the annual growth rate drops rapidly, because the energy is probably diverted to reproduction. It is a gonochoristic species with no evidence of sexual dimorphism. The gonad is present as a single diffuse testis in males and as a single discrete ovary in females. The overall ratio of males to females is not significantly different from 1:1. The reproductive period of the species is protacted (February to June). The peak of the reproductive effort occurs in April–May. The size at first maturity is 68mm. The population is being heavily exploited.     

Evolutionary relationships of flying foxes (genus Pteropus) in the Philippines inferred from DNA sequences of cytochrome b gene

Six flying fox species, genus Pteropus (four from the Philippines) were investigated using complete cytochrome b gene sequences (1140 bp) to infer their evolutionary relationships. The DNA sequences generated via polymerase chain reaction were analyzed using the neighbor-joining, parsimony, and maximum likelihood methods. We estimated that the first evolutionary event among these Pteropus species occurred approximately 13.90 ± 1.49 MYA. Within this short period of evolutionary time we further hypothesized that the ancestors of the flying foxes found in the Philippines experienced a subsequent diversification forming two clusters in the topology. The first cluster is composed of P. pumilus (Philippine endemic), P. speciosus (restricted in western Mindanao) with P. scapulatus, while the second one comprised P. vampyrus and P. dasymallus species based on the analysis from first and second codon positions. Consistently, all phylogenetic analyses divulged close association of P. dasymallus with P. vampyrus contradicting the previous report categorizing P. dasymallus under subniger species group with P. pumilus, P. speciosus, and P. hypomelanus. The Philippine endemic species (P. pumilus) is closely linked with P. speciosus. The representative samples of P. vampyrus showed a large genetic distance of 1.87%. The large genetic distance between P. dasymallus and P. hypomelanus, P. pumilus and P. speciosus denotes a distinct species group.     

The freshwater crab fauna (Crustacea: Brachyura) of the Philippines. V. On a new genus and species of potamid from Palawan island, Philippines

A new genus and new species of terrestrial potamid crab ( Carpomon pomulum) is described from the island of Palawan in the Philippines. This new genus can easily be distinguished from all other Philippine potamids in its smooth and inflated carapace, no trace of an epibranchial tooth, extremely low postorbital cristae, and stout and twisted male first gonopod. This revised version was published online in July 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

Spatio-temporal patterns of recruitment of labroid fishes (Pisces: Labridae and Scaridae) to damselfish territories

Recent studies have shown that recruitment variability is an important process structuring reef fish assemblages. The aim of this study is to describe the spatio-temporal patterns of recruitment of three abundant labroid taxa (Coris schroederi, Halichoeres melanurus and Scarus spp.), using damselfish territories as replicate units of habitat. Temporal recruitment patterns of each taxa were consistent among three sites along 2 km of reef tract, with small differences among sites probably the result of hydrological or random factors operating at that scale. Recruitment of only one species (C. schroederi) showed consistent differences in the magnitude of recruitment among sites, which was probably due to an overriding effect of habitat selection for the location of the territories on the reef profile at one site. Two taxa, C. schroederi and Scarus spp., recruited in low to moderate rates over many weeks with moderate recruitment peaks detected in one year only. This pattern may be characteristic of many labroid species that have protracted periods of production of larvae. In contrast, H. melanurus recruited in a single short pulse of high magnitude each summer, which suggests that production of larvae by this species may occur over a more restricted period of time. No strong pattern of lunar entrainment of recruitment was detected for any taxa, which may be due to a lack of lunar periodicity in production of larvae. Further studies are now required to identify the processes that are important in determining patterns of labroid recruitment. This revised version was published online in August 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

All in the ears: unlocking the early life history biology and spatial ecology of fishes

Obtaining biological and spatial information of the early life history (ELH) phases of fishes has been problematic, such that larval and juvenile phases are often referred to as the ‘black box’ of fish population biology and ecology. However, a potent source of life‐history data has been mined from the earstones (otoliths) of bony fishes. We systematically reviewed 476 empirical papers published between 2005 and 2012 (inclusive) that used otoliths to examine fish ELH phases, which has been an area of increasing attention over this period. We found that otolith‐based research during this period could be split into two broad themes according to whether studies examined: (i) biological objectives related to intrinsic processes such as larval and juvenile age, growth and mortality, and/or (ii) spatial objectives, such as habitat use, dispersal and migration. Surprisingly, just 24 studies (5%) explored a combined biological–spatial objective by simultaneously exploiting biological and spatial information from otoliths, suggesting much more scope for such integrated research objectives to be answered via the use of multiple otolith‐based techniques in a single study. Mapping otolith analytical techniques across these two approaches revealed that otolith structural analysis was mainly used to investigate biological processes, while otolith chemical analyses were most often applied to spatial questions. Heavy skew in research effort was apparent across biomes, with most (62%) publications specific to marine species, despite comparable levels of species richness and the importance of freshwater taxa (just 15% of papers). Indeed, around 1% (380 species) of a possible 31400+ extant species were examined in our surveyed papers, with a strong emphasis on temperate marine species of commercial value. Potential model species for otolith‐based ELH ecology research are arising, with the eel genus Anguilla (24 studies) and the European anchovy Engraulis encrasicolis (14 studies) attracting more research effort than most other taxa. While there is a preponderance of common techniques (e.g. daily otolith increment counts, increment widths), novel techniques such as transgenerational marking and computed X‐ray tomography, are increasingly being applied in published studies. The application of an integrative approach based on a combination of emerging techniques and traditional methods holds promise for major advances in our understanding of ELH fish ecology and to shine light into the ‘black box’ of fish ecology.     

Local Mangrove Planting in the Philippines: Are Fisherfolk and Fishpond Owners Effective Restorationists?

Local fisherfolk and fishpond owners have been practicing “restoration” of mangrove forests in some parts of the Philippines for decades, well before governments and non‐government organizations began to promote the activity as a conservation tool. This paper examines ecological characteristics of these mangrove plantations and compares them to natural mangroves in the same areas. Mangrove planters were interviewed and plantation and natural mangrove forests were surveyed to measure forest structure, composition and regeneration. Compared with natural forests, mangrove plantations were characterized by high densities of small stems, shorter and narrower canopies, and fewer species. For both economic and ecological reasons, the vast majority of people dispersed and planted only Rhizophora mucronata/stylosa and, furthermore, they often thinned other species out of planted areas. There was remarkably little subsequent recruitment of other, nonplanted mangrove species into plantations up to 50 and 60 years of age. This pattern held across a diversity of sites, including plantations that had not been selectively cut or weeded. Important ecological and economic benefits result from local mangrove planting, but catalyzing diverse forest regeneration—at least in the short to medium term—is not one of them. The lesson: if you want to restore diverse mangrove forests, you have to plant diverse mangrove forests.     

New genera and species of pheretimoid earthworms (Clitellata: Megascolecidae) from southern Luzon,Philippines

Collections made in montane forests of the Bicol region of the Philippine island Luzon contained earthworm species new to science. The new genus Dendropheretima has intestinal caeca paired in xxv, lamellar oesophageal pouches in xi‐xiii, testes free of sacs, and last hearts in xii. The two species, D. banahawensis and D. bicolensis, are both arboreal. A second new genus Isarogoscolex contains two species, Isarogoscolex abiadai and I. albayensis which are also arboreal but have more posteriorly located caeca and more pairs of caeca, have only meganephridia in the intestinal segments, and the lamellar oesophageal pouches are arranged differently from Dendropheretima. Among the other genera of the Pheretima complex, these new taxa may be closest to the Australo‐Papuan Begemius.     

China's Nine Dotted Lines in the South China Sea: The 2011 Exchange of Diplomatic Notes Between the Philippines and China

Important events relating to the sovereignty dispute over the Spratly Islands have arisen by fits and starts since 2009, marking the start of a new phase in the legal battle over territorial and maritime claims in the South China Sea. While the exchange of legal arguments between the parties has gradually laid bare their maritime claims, much still remains shrouded in uncertainty. Among the obscure claims wanting clarification is China's infamous nine-dotted-line map, which in 2011 elicited a response and counterresponse between the Philippines and China. This article examines the maritime and territorial claims of the Philippines and China as revealed in the recent discord over the nine-dotted-line map.