A Physician's Perspective on the Incorporation of Pictograms as a Supplement to Medical Instructions in Chile: A Pilot Study

Introduction and objectivesCurrent models of health care are progressively migrating to more participatory models, where for treatment to achieve results that last over time, there must be effective communication between the patient, his or her caregivers, and health professionals. Although the use of pictograms in the context of medical instructions has been widely studied, in our country, there are no studies about their usefulness, or which set of symbols should be used by the systems. This work aims to present the first step towards the development of platforms that automatically suggest pictograms to supplement medical instructions for primary care settings in Chile.Materials and methodsIn this pilot study, we collected and analyzed the physicians' opinions on the selection of medical instructions that later will automatically be supplemented by the software that is under construction. We designed an expert validation survey using a set of 66 medical instructions with pictograms. This survey provided three rating options for each medical instruction: Not necessary (supplementing the instruction with a pictogram does not carry any value), Useful (supplementing the instruction with a pictogram may help patients to understand and remember the instruction), and Essential (supplementing the instruction with a pictogram is essential). Seventy-one physicians responded to the survey.Results22 out of 66 medical instructions were considered “essential” by >=51% of the experts, and 12 of the 66 were considered to be “useful but not essential” by >=51% of the experts.ConclusionResults of our survey validate the potential use of pictograms as a complement to better comprehension of medical instructions in our country.     

The next step for stress research in primates: To identify relationships between glucocorticoid secretion and fitness

Glucocorticoids are hormones that mediate the energetic demands that accompany environmental challenges. It is therefore not surprising that these metabolic hormones have come to dominate endocrine research on the health and fitness of wild populations. Yet, several problems have been identified in the vertebrate research that also apply to the non-human primate research. First, glucocorticoids should not be used as a proxy for fitness (unless a link has previously been established between glucocorticoids and fitness for a particular population). Second, stress research in behavioral ecology has been overly focused on “chronic stress” despite little evidence that chronic stress hampers fitness in wild animals. Third, research effort has been disproportionately focused on the causes of glucocorticoid variation rather than the fitness consequences. With these problems in mind, we have three objectives for this review. We describe the conceptual framework behind the “stress concept”, emphasizing that high glucocorticoids do not necessarily indicate a stress response, and that a stress response does not necessarily indicate an animal is in poor health. Then, we conduct a comprehensive review of all studies on “stress” in wild primates, including any study that examined environmental factors, the stress response, and/or fitness (or proxies for fitness). Remarkably, not a single primate study establishes a connection between all three. Finally, we provide several recommendations for future research in the field of primate behavioral endocrinology, primarily the need to move beyond identifying the factors that cause glucocorticoid secretion to additionally focus on the relationship between glucocorticoids and fitness. We believe that this is an important next step for research on stress physiology in primates.     

One Dog,but Which Dog? How Researchers Guide Participants to Select Dogs in Surveys of Human–Dog Relationships

Surveys and questionnaires are regularly used in studies of human–animal relationships. However, little attention has been given to understanding how survey participants are provided with instructions for the selection of a single animal within a multi-pet household, let alone the implications for reporting and interpreting data. We reviewed the instructions for the selection of an individual animal in studies addressing emotional or psychological attachment between people and dogs. By searching multidisciplinary journals from the year 2000 onwards, we identified a total of 128 papers, of which 63 met the inclusion criteria. Where selection criteria/instructions were not clear, authors were contacted. One in five studies (21%, or n = 13) did not report their instructions. When provided, instructions varied considerably. The most commonly provided direction was “favorite/closest relationship” (n = 12, or 19%). The remainder (n = 38, or 60%) were spread across eight different categories. Around half of the studies used a validated questionnaire that already contained an instruction, though a similar proportion of studies implemented author-designed instruments. Overall, the common absence and inconsistency of instructions for individual dog selection is taken to imply that there is no standard expectation or approach for instructions to be reported in studies of human relationships with dogs, or human–animal relationships more generally. We recommend further research on the implication of selection methods to ensure that instructions can be matched with specific research aims.     

Deconstructing the long-standing a priori assumption that serial homology generally involves ancestral similarity followed by anatomical divergence

It has long been assumed that serial homologues are ancestrally similar—polysomerism resulting from a “duplication” or “repetition” of forms—and then often diverge—anisomerism, for example, as they become adapted to perform different tasks as is the case with the forelimb and hind limbs of humans. However, such an assumption, with crucial implications for comparative, evolutionary, and developmental biology, and for evolutionary developmental biology, has in general not really been tested by a broad analysis of the available empirical data. Perhaps not surprisingly, more recent anatomical comparisons, as well as molecular knowledge of how, for example, serial appendicular structures are patterned along with different anteroposterior regions of the body axis of bilateral animals, and how “homologous” patterning domains do not necessarily mark “homologous” morphological domains, are putting in question this paradigm. In fact, apart from showing that many so-called “serial homologues” might not be similar at all, recent works have shown that in at least some cases some “serial” structures are indeed more similar to each other in derived taxa than in phylogenetically more ancestral ones, as pointed out by authors such as Owen. In this article, we are taking a step back to question whether such assumptions are actually correct at all, in the first place. In particular, we review other cases of so-called “serial homologues” such as insect wings, arthropod walking appendages, Dipteran thoracic bristles, and the vertebrae, ribs, teeth, myomeres, feathers, and hairs of chordate animals. We show that: (a) there are almost never cases of true ancestral similarity; (b) in evolution, such structures—for example, vertebra—and/or their subparts—for example, “transverse processes”—many times display trends toward less similarity while in many others display trends toward more similarity, that is, one cannot say that there is a clear, overall trend to anisomerism.     

Visualizing everything,everywhere, all at once: Cryo-EM and the new field of structureomics

Twenty years ago, the release of the first draft of the human genome sequence instigated a paradigm shift in genomics and molecular biology. Arguably, structural biology is entering an analogous era, with availability of an experimentally determined or predicted molecular model for almost every protein-coding gene from many genomes—producing a reference “structureome”. Structural predictions require experimental validation and not all proteins conform to a single structure, making any reference structureome necessarily incomplete. Despite these limitations, a reference structureome can be used to characterize cell state in more detail than by quantifying sequence or expression levels alone. Cryogenic electron microscopy (cryo-EM) is a method that can generate atomic resolution views of molecules and cells frozen in place. In this perspective I consider how emerging cryo-EM methods are contributing to the new field of structureomics.     

On the mutability of the yeast mitochondrial genome.

A mechanism is proposed to explain how a mutation in a single molecule of mitochondrial DNA (mitDNA) can come to affect all the other mitDNA molecules of a yeast cell. It is suggested that an initial mutation may be “amplified” by a process which is, in fact, intended to ensure the identity of the cell's complement of mitDNA molecules. It is postulated that this process involves a small number of “reference” copies of mitDNA to which all other (“derived”) copies are compared and corrected once per cell cycle. Asymmetric gene conversion is proposed as the correction mechanism and the means of “amplifying” mutations. The model is shown to be compatible with current data on spontaneous and induced mitochondrial mutation in Saccharomyces cerevisiae.     

Das Triplett aus zwei Monophyla und einem Paraphylum als Baustein des phylogenetischen Systems

The triplet consisting of two monophyletic taxa and one paraphyletic taxon as constructive element of the phylogenetic system Evolution has produced very many novelties (apomorphies). Most of them are small and relatively inconstant, these are more or less indicative of the phylogenetic relationships between closely related species. They cannot be the constitutive character of a supraspecific taxon that exists since a long time and comprises many diversified species. Such a taxon of higher rank can only be characterized by an improbable, rare novelty that has developed only once and has been preserved in all descendent species. Two consecutive apomorphies of this persistent type (‘fixed apomorphies’) characterize three supraspecific taxa, the triplet “A”, “B” and “A minus B” (Fig. 1). The group “A minus B” is rejected in Hennig's theory because it is ‘paraphyletic’, but it is not an artefact created by the systematicist. It is an inevitable mathematical consequence of the differentiatison of the group “B” within the group “A”. Being the result of a subtraction, it is necessarily associated with the two monophyletic partners in the triplet, as it is delimited on one side by the synapomorphy of the group “A”, of which it is a part, and on the other side by the autapomorphy of the separate group “B”. Traditional classifications often include paraphyletic groupings that are inconsistent with phylogenetics, e. g. the Reptilia and the Apterygota. The fault in such cases is that these groups are extended beyond the limits of a triplet and cover more than a single interval between consecutive monophyletic taxa. Paraphyletic groups are admitted in the phylogenetic system only for bridging the gaps in our cladistic information. According to HENNIG'S theory, all supraspecific taxa should be arranged two by two as sister-groups originating from one ancestral species and comprising all descendents of that species. The fixed evolutionary novelties which characterize higher supraspecific taxa are, however, rare and scattered. It is highly improbable that they have developed in sister species, therefore the taxa marked by them cannot be sister-groups (except in very rare cases). In HENNIG'S earlier papers, e. g. in his system of Lepidoptera (1953: 46–49), the alleged ‘sister-groups' are, in reality, the groups “B” and “A minus B” of a triplet (see Fig. 2). In his revised concept (1957 and later), two autapomorphic groups which are most closely related in the recent fauna (“B” and “C” in Fig. 3) are called ‘sister-groups’. But these have originated independently from different ancestors in a plesiomorphic complex of extinct species and are more closely related to parts of this complex than to each other. True sister-groups (“Bx” and “Cx” in Fig. 4) would be formed if these related plesiomorphic species were included, but this extension of the ’backward‘ border of the taxon is not justified by synapomorphy (in the terms of logic, it is a ’metabasis‘), and it would make the classification of fossil species impossible, unless these show at least one synapomorphy with either “B” or “C”. In the system of the recent fauna the sister-groups are identical with the autapomorphic groups, because the plesiomorphic species are extinct. The natural system based on synapomorphies and autapomorphies is the triplet-system as outlined in Figure 6. It is not a new type of classification, but its theoretical foundation was missing, and precise instructions were needed for its use in phylogenetics. The information obtained by HENNIG'S method is entirely preserved in this system and can be retrieved from it, and both recent and extinct species can be classified together. The disadvantage of the triplet-system is that it contains twice as many taxa as HENNIG'S classification. This complexity will limit its use in the practice of taxonomy, but it may be simplified by transforming the system into a sequence of paraphyletic taxa terminating in a single monophylum.     

Glucocorticoid potentiation of delta-aminolevulinic acid synthetase in chick embryo liver cells: a "permissive" effect

Glucocorticoids at physiologic concentrations do not induce δ-aminolevulinic acid synthetase, the rate-limiting enzyme in the heme biosynthetic pathway, in cultured chick embryo hepatocytes. Etiocholanolone-mediated induction of this enzyme is however markedly potentiated by cortisol (2.6-fold vs. 4.4-fold). The order of effectiveness in this “permissive” effect is dexamethasone ≥ cortisol > corticosterone > progesterone. The addition of 17α-methyltestosterone, an “anti-glucocorticoid”, substantially decreased the action of cortisol. This “permissive” action is specific for steroid hormones possessing glucocorticoid activity and may play an important role in heme biosynthesis.     

Comparative omasum anatomy in ruminants: Relationships with natural diet,digestive physiology,and general considerations on allometric investigations

The omasum is the third forestomach compartment of pecoran ruminants. It is assumed that the re-absorption of fluid present in the forestomach digesta (that facilitates particle sorting, digestion, and harvest of microbes) is its main function, so that less diluted digesta is submitted to enzymatic digestion in the lower digestive tract. Here, we evaluate measures of omasum size (representing 84 ruminant species in the largest data set) against body mass and proxies of the natural diet (%grass) or forestomach physiology (fluid throughput), using phylogenetically controlled models. The origin of specimens (free-ranging or captive) did not have an effect in the data set. Models with the best support invariably either included %grass or a physiology proxy in addition to body mass. These effects were not necessarily additive (affecting the intercept of the allometric regression), but often indicated a change in the allometric body mass-exponent with diet or physiology. Only models that allowed an influence on the allometric exponent yielded basic exponents compatible with predictions derived from geometry. Species that include more grass in their natural diet, or that have a “cattle-type” physiology marked by a high forestomach fluid throughput, generally have larger omasa. However, the existence of outliers, as well as the overall data pattern, suggest that this is not an obligatory morphophysiological condition. Circumstantial evidence is presented leading to the hypothesis that the comparatively small and less complex omasa of “moose-type” species do not necessarily represent an “original” state, but may be derived from more complex states by ontogenetic reduction and fusion of omasal laminae.     

Allelic variants of hereditary prions: The bimodularity principle

Modern biology requires modern genetic concepts equally valid for all discovered mechanisms of inheritance, either “canonical” (mediated by DNA sequences) or epigenetic. Applying basic genetic terms such as “gene” and “allele” to protein hereditary factors is one of the necessary steps toward these concepts. The basic idea that different variants of the same prion protein can be considered as alleles has been previously proposed by Chernoff and Tuite. In this paper, the notion of prion allele is further developed. We propose the idea that any prion allele is a bimodular hereditary system that depends on a certain DNA sequence (DNA determinant) and a certain epigenetic mark (epigenetic determinant). Alteration of any of these 2 determinants may lead to establishment of a new prion allele. The bimodularity principle is valid not only for hereditary prions; it seems to be universal for any epigenetic hereditary factor.     

The relation of saturated fatty acids with low-grade inflammation and cardiovascular disease

The mantra that dietary (saturated) fat must be minimized to reduce cardiovascular disease (CVD) risk has dominated nutritional guidelines for decades. Parallel to decreasing intakes of fat and saturated fatty acids (SFA), there have been increases in carbohydrate and sugar intakes, overweight, obesity and type 2 diabetes mellitus. The “lipid hypothesis” coined the concept that fat, especially SFA, raises blood low-density lipoprotein-cholesterol and thereby CVD risk. In view of current controversies regarding their adequate intakes and effects, this review aims to summarize research regarding this heterogenic group of fatty acids and the mechanisms relating them to (chronic) systemic low-grade inflammation, insulin resistance, metabolic syndrome and notably CVD. The intimate relationship between inflammation and metabolism, including glucose, fat and cholesterol metabolism, revealed that the dyslipidemia in Western societies, notably increased triglycerides, “small dense” low-density lipoprotein and “dysfunctional” high-density lipoprotein, is influenced by many unfavorable lifestyle factors. Dietary SFA is only one of these, not necessarily the most important, in healthy, insulin-sensitive people. The environment provides us not only with many other proinflammatory stimuli than SFA but also with many antiinflammatory counterparts. Resolution of the conflict between our self-designed environment and ancient genome may rather rely on returning to the proinflammatory/antiinflammatory balance of the Paleolithic era in consonance with the 21st century culture. Accordingly, dietary guidelines might reconsider recommendations for SFA replacement and investigate diet in a broader context, together with nondietary lifestyle factors. This should be a clear priority, opposed to the reductionist approach of studying the effects of single nutrients, such as SFA.     

Parsimony analysis and ecological communities, phytosociology, nested subsets analysis, forest fragmentation: a reply to Giannini and Keller

We suggested using parsimony analysis to study community evolution in terms of species composition and to apply these results in the context of forest fragmentation as a replacement for the so‐called “nested subsets analysis” or other phenetic synecological or phytosociological methods ( Pellens et al., 2005 ). Giannini and Keller (2007 ) took issue with this new application on the basis of three misunderstandings. We re‐emphasize that communities themselves are analyzed, not landscape parts such as forest fragments. Therefore, it must be clear that communities are analogous to taxa and landscape parts such as fragments are analogous to distributions of taxa. Community evolution is the change in community composition by immigration, emigration and local extinction. Thus, gains and losses of species should not be confused with horizontal transfer. Parsimony analysis does not necessarily group communities based on shared absences of rare species. Rare species are not necessarily absent in the same communities and these absences are not necessarily inferred to be synapomorphies after rooting. This is the main advance expected when cladistics is used instead of the previously cited phenetic methods working with overall similarity. © The Willi Hennig Society 2007.     

Differences in the leaf functional traits of six beech (Fagus sylvatica L.) populations are reflected in their response to water limitation

Patterns of intraspecific variation in functional traits have been widely studied across plant species to find out what general suites of traits provide functional advantage under specific environmental conditions. Much less is known about this variation within tree species and, in particular, about its relationship with performance variables such as photosynthetic rates under water deficit. Nevertheless, this knowledge is fundamental to understand the adaptive potential of drought sensitive tree species to increased aridity as predicted in the context of climate change.Intraspecific variation in photosynthetic performance and other leaf functional traits in response to water availability were examined in a glasshouse experiment using seedlings of six European beech populations. The physiological response of seedlings to a “water stress” treatment was compared to a “control” treatment along an experimental cycle of progressive soil water deficit and recovery. We found evidence of intraspecific variation in beech's photosynthetic performance and other leaf functional traits in response to water availability. We also detected intraspecific variation in leaf-level tolerance of water deficit and phenotypic plasticity to water availability suggesting a pattern shaped by both regional and local scale effects. The Swedish population was particularly sensitive to water deficit, being the only population showing impaired photochemical efficiency under the experimental water deficit. Leaf-level tolerance of water deficit was related to PNUE, but not to other functional traits, such as WUE, SLA or leaf nitrogen content, that have been described to vary across species in adaptation to drought tolerance. Our results support the idea that general trends for variation in functional traits across species do not necessarily reflect a similar pattern when observed at the intraspecific level. The observed functional variation between beech populations reaffirms the importance of local adaptation to water deficit in the context of climate change.     

Serological Comparison of Antigens Related to Local Virus and Bacterial Infections and Aspecific Stresses in Tobacco Leaves

Two “new” precipitin bands (antigens) detected by the immunodiffusion test were demon strated in leaf extracts of tobacco inoculated with tobacco mosaic virus (TMV), Pseudomonas tabaci or treated with mercuric chloride, sodium azide or sodium hypochlorite. One of the precipitin bands was stronger, than the other, These antigens were also detected in the upper, non-infected leaves of tobacco plants when the lower leaves were locally stressed (necrotized) either by TMV or by chemical injury. The “new” antigens formed in the upper leaves were detected even if the TMV-inoculated lower leaves were removed one day after inoculation. The “new” antigens were identical both in the lower and upper leaves and their induction was independent from the stress whether pathogenic or chemical. A coincidence exists between the appearance of “new” antigens and acquired resistance, but this does not mean necessarily a cause-and-effect relationship between the two phenomena. Our experiments indicate that the induction of the synthesis of “new” stress proteins in tobacco is aspecific and the proteins formed are related to the aspecific stress itself rather than to pathogenesis.     

DNA polymerase programmed with a hairpin DNA incorporates a multiple-instruction architecture into molecular computing

Parallelism is one of the major advantages of molecular computation. A large number of data encoded in DNA molecules can be processed simultaneously by molecular biology techniques, although only a single set of instructions has been implemented in a solution. We have developed a computing machine, called the "whiplash" machine, which is made of DNA polymerase and a hairpin DNA. This machine simulates a finite state machine, executing its own instructions encoded in the DNA moiety, and would thus be applicable to multiple-instruction operation in a solution. In the present study, we explored the feasibility of this novel type of parallelism by applying the whiplash machine in a computation of the directed Hamiltonian path problem. The possible paths in a given graph were represented with different instruction sets, which were then implemented separately by whiplash machines in a test tube. After an autonomous operation of the machines, only the machine that implemented the instruction set corresponding to the Hamiltonian path was recovered from the tube. On the basis of the efficiency of machine operation, which was experimentally determined, 10(10) different instruction sets could be implemented simultaneously in a 1-ml solution.