水稻镁离子螯合酶调控蛋白Gun4羧基末端的功能分析

植物叶绿素生物合成途径（镁分支）中的第一个酶是镁离子螯合酶,它由I（ChlI）、D（ChlD）和H（ChlH）三个亚基组成．各亚基不仅参与叶绿素的生物合成,而且还与叶绿体到细胞核的反向信号传导有关．Gun4是一个卟啉结合蛋白,它能提高植物镁离子螯合酶的活性,在缺乏Gun4的条件下,镁离子螯合酶整个复合物非常不稳定,不足以开始催化反应．我们以前的研究发现,Gun4 的C末端几个氨基酸具有重要作用．在本文中,通过缺失突变,获得了C端缺失了8个氨基酸残基突变的Gun4（Gun4L）.酵母双杂交与GST-pull down实验发现,Gun4L仍能与H亚基相互作用,原核表达和纯化Gun4L和镁离子螯合酶各亚基后,重组镁离子螯合酶的酶活分析证实,Gun4L对镁离子螯合酶的活性失去了激活作用．     

镁螯合酶的结构与功能

镁螯合酶（magnesium chelatase）是叶绿素合成过程中的关键酶,催化原卟啉IX与Mg2+螯合形成镁原卟啉IX。镁螯合酶由催化亚基H与AAA+亚基I、D组成。通过这3种亚基的协调配合,在ATP驱动下实现Mg2+与原卟啉IX的螯合,推动叶绿素的合成。在这一过程中,基因组解偶联基因4（GUN4）蛋白对其发挥重要的正调控作用。自上世纪90年代以来,镁螯合酶独特的结构及其作用机制一直吸引着研究者们的兴趣。本文结合最新的研究进展,阐述镁螯合酶的结构、酶促反应动力学及其催化机制等。另外,对于GUN4蛋白对镁螯合酶的调控也进行了概述。     

细胞核,细胞质基因与光合作用的关系

光合作用受细胞核及细胞质基因组垢共同控制。参与叶绿素,类胡萝卜素合成和光合作用过程的许多酶都由核基因控制,而光合电子传递体大部分受核基因控制,少部分受细胞质基因控制。光合作用过程包括光反应与暗反应两个阶段。光反应发生在类囊体膜上,而类囊体膜４个组成部分细胞核,持基因共同编码。在暗反应中,催化ＣＯ２固定的关键酶核酮糖二磷酸羧化酶／加氧酶由大,小亚基组成,大亚基由叶绿体基因编码;小亚基由核基因控制。     

高等植物叶绿素生物合成的研究进展

叶绿素是植物叶绿体内参与光合作用的重要色素,其功能是捕获光能并驱动电子转移到反应中心.整个叶绿素生物合成过程(L-谷氨酰-tRNA→叶绿素a→叶绿素b)需要15步反应,涉及15种酶,迄今在模式植物拟南芥中已分离到27个编码这些酶的基因,完成了以拟南芥为代表的被子植物叶绿素生物合成全部基因的克隆.本文主要对近年来国内外有关植物叶绿素的生物合成过程及相关酶基因的克隆、生物合成途径中2个关键步骤(σ-氨基酮戊酸(ALA)合成和Mg离子插入原卟啉Ⅸ的调节)、影响叶绿素生物合成的主要因素(光、温度、营养元素等),以及叶绿素生物合成相关酶的其他生物学功能等的研究进展进行综述.     

大麦幼苗活性氧与其他叶绿体信号的关系

以普通大麦幼苗为材料,用除草剂、光合电子传递链抑制剂、H2O2、活性氧清除剂、强光或叶绿素合成前体物质浸根处理,通过过氧化氢和超氧阴离子染色和rbcS基因Northern杂交检测,研究了活性氧在大麦叶绿体信号传导中的作用.结果显示:除草剂20μmol/L norflurazon(NF)处理明显造成大麦幼苗活性氧染色加重和rbcS基因受抑制,同时用活性氧的清除剂处理可以部分逆转rbcS基因的下调;光合电子传递链的抑制剂也明显造成活性氧染色加重和rbcS基因受抑制,同时用活性氧的清除剂处理可以完全逆转rbcS基因的下调;光合电子传递链抑制剂对糖饥饿诱导的rbcS基因上调有抑制作用,同时用活性氧的清除剂处理可以完全逆转此抑制作用;高浓度糖或叶绿体蛋白质合成抑制剂都不能引发活性氧,但可以显著抑制核编码光合基因.可见,除草剂NF引发的信号是镁原卟啉信号与活性氧信号的叠加,光合电子传递链的氧化还原状态改变引发的信号绝大部分可以归结为活性氧信号,而高浓度糖和叶绿体蛋白质合成引发的叶绿体信号与活性氧没有直接联系.     

与TaFRA蛋白相互作用候选蛋白的筛选

F-box蛋白是E3泛素连接酶SCF复合体的重要亚基, 通过底物蛋白的特异识别发挥功能。TaFRA是在盐胁迫差异表达片段基础上通过RACE方法获得的一个基因, 编码F-box蛋白。文章利用TaFRA基因构建诱饵表达载体, 直接用cDNA+pGAD+pBD共转化酵母双杂交的方法筛选相互作用的候选蛋白。通过对阳性克隆的鉴定和测序分析, 共获得44个与TaFRA相互作用的候选蛋白, 其中32个为已知蛋白, 包括硫氧还蛋白、金属硫蛋白、ATP合成酶及丝氨酸/苏氨酸蛋白激酶等多种逆境胁迫反应蛋白及转录因子蛋白, 说明TaFRA与胁迫反应相关, 可能通过对上述蛋白编码基因的调控参与了植物的胁迫反应过程, 为进一步阐明TaFRA的功能及作用机制奠定了理论基础。     

超级杂交稻母本OsCHLHcDNA的生物信息学分析与克隆

通过生物信息学分析得到正确的水稻镁离子螯合酶H亚基(Mg-chelatase H subunit,CHLH)的cDNA.以超级杂交稻母本株1 S为材料提取总RNA,并反转录成cDNA,用得到的序列设计特异引物,经PCR扩增出株1 S cDNA片段,eDNA片段经T-A克隆后进行测序,获得一条长1 350 bp序列.提交NCBI的GenBank数据库后接收,登录号为EU569725.     

水稻AtpH基因的表达受冷抑制

采用RT-PCR差异显示法,从水稻(Oryza sativa L.)幼苗克隆了1个受冷抑制表达的cDNA片段.该片段序列与水稻叶绿体基因组编码ATP合酶CF0Ⅲ亚基的atpH基因完全同源,且覆盖了atpH基因编码区.以Northern杂交分析了水稻幼苗在冷处理不同时间后的atpH基因转录水平,结果表明,atpH基因的转录受冷抑制,在冷处理第1天就明显下降,第2天以后完全受抑制.     

基因重组与外源铁离子对大肠杆菌合成血红素的影响

【背景】大肠杆菌通过C5途径合成卟啉及血红素,5-氨基乙酰丙酸(5-aminolevulinic acid,5-ALA)是C5途径中关键的前体物质,血红素由原卟啉IX (protoporphyrin IX, PPIX)螯合一个铁离子所形成,目前5-ALA与PPIX的外泌对卟啉的积累和血红素合成的影响尚不清楚。【目的】构建5-ALA外泌蛋白基因rhtA和卟啉外泌蛋白基因tolC双缺失的大肠杆菌以积累卟啉,同时外源添加铁离子,并过表达亚铁螯合酶基因hemH及参与铁摄取的基因efeB,促进卟啉向血红素的转化。【方法】通过Red同源重组敲除大肠杆菌BL21(DE3)的rhtA和tolC,并外源添加不同浓度的FeSO₄及Fe₂(SO₄)₃,同时构建重组质粒pEHE过表达hemH和efeB,检测卟啉和血红素含量,分析卟啉向血红素的转化。【结果】敲除rhtA和tolC对菌体生长无显著影响,与野生菌WT相比,敲除菌株WT-RT的卟啉含量增加,血红素合成略有提升。外源添加100μmol/L Fe²⁺     

分裂泛素化酵母双杂交系统研究光合膜蛋白相互作用

光合类囊体膜主要由光系统Ⅱ、细胞色素b6f复合物、光系统Ⅰ以及ATP合酶4个超分子复合物组成.利用分裂泛素化酵母双杂交系统研究光合类囊体膜蛋白间的相互作用.将叶绿体psbA基因编码的D1蛋白作为诱饵蛋白,以叶绿体基因psbD编码的D2蛋白、petB编码的Cytb6蛋白作为靶蛋白,分别共转化酵母菌株后进行相互作用分析.实验结果表明,诱饵蛋白D1能与来源于同一复合物光系统Ⅱ的D2蛋白发生相互作用,而与来源于细胞色素b6f复合物的Cytb6蛋白没有互作.这一结果表明,分裂泛素化酵母双杂交系统可以用于检测光合膜蛋白间的相互作用,从而为研究光合膜蛋白生物发生的调控机理提供一个有效的工具.     

Chlorophyll biosynthesis. Expression of a second chl I gene of magnesium chelatase in Arabidopsis supports only limited chlorophyll synthesis

Magnesium (Mg) chelatase is a heterotrimeric enzyme complex that catalyzes a key regulatory and enzymatic reaction in chlorophyll biosynthesis, the insertion of Mg(2+) into protoporphyrin IX. Studies of the enzyme complex reconstituted in vitro have shown that all three of its subunits, CHL I, CHL D, and CHL H, are required for enzymatic activity. However, a new T-DNA knockout mutant of the chlorina locus, ch42-3 (Chl I), in Arabidopsis is still able to accumulate some chlorophyll despite the absence of Chl I mRNA and protein. In barley (Hordeum vulgare), CHL I is encoded by a single gene. We have identified an open reading frame that apparently encodes a second Chl I gene, Chl I2. Chl I1 and Chl I2 mRNA accumulate to similar levels in wild type, yet CHL I2 protein is not detectable in wild type or ch42-3, although the protein is translated and stromally processed as shown by in vivo pulse labeling and in vitro chloroplast imports. It is surprising that CHL D accumulates to wild-type levels in ch42-3, which is in contrast to reports that CHL D is unstable in CHL I-deficient backgrounds of barley. Our results show that limited Mg chelatase activity and CHL D accumulation can occur without detectable CHL I, despite its obligate requirement in vitro and its proposed chaperone-like stabilization and activation of CHL D. Thus, the unusual post-translational regulation of the CHL I2 protein provides an opportunity to study the different steps involved in stabilization and activation of the heterotrimeric Mg chelatase in vivo.     

Localization within chloroplasts of protoporphyrinogen oxidase, the target enzyme for diphenylether-like herbicides.

Plant protoporphyrinogen oxidase is of particular interest since it is the last enzyme of the common branch for chlorophyll and heme biosynthetic pathways. In addition, it is the target enzyme for diphenyl ether-type herbicides, such as acifluorfen. Two distinct methods were used to investigate the localization of this enzyme within Percoll-purified spinach chloroplasts. We first assayed the enzymatic activity by spectrofluorimetry and we analyzed the specific binding of the herbicide acifluorfen, using highly purified chloroplast fractions. The results obtained give clear evidence that chloroplast protoporphyrinogen oxidase activity is membrane-bound and is associated with both chloroplast membranes, i.e. envelope and thylakoids. Protoporphyrinogen oxidase specific activity was 7-8 times higher in envelope membranes than in thylakoids, in good agreement with the number of [3H]acifluorfen binding sites in each membrane system: 21 and 3 pmol/mg protein, respectively, in envelope membranes and thylakoids. On a total activity basis, 25% of protoporphyrinogen oxidase activity were associated with envelope membranes. The presence of protoporphyrinogen oxidase in chloroplast envelope membranes provides further evidence for a role of this membrane system in chlorophyll biosynthesis. In contrast, the physiological significance of the enzyme associated with thylakoids is still unknown, but it is possible that thylakoid protoporphyrinogen oxidase could be involved in heme biosynthesis.     

Synthesis and turnover of ribulose biphosphate carboxylase and of its subunits during the cell cycle of Chlamydomonas reinhardtii

The chloroplast enzyme ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate (Ru-1,5-P2) carboxylase (EC 4.1 1.39) is made up ot two nonidentical subunits, one synthesized in the chloroplast and the other outside. Both of these subunits of the assembled enzyme are synthesized in a stepwise manner during the synchronous cell cycle of the green alga Chlamydomonas reinhardtii. The activity of this enzyme increases in the light and this increase is due to de novo protein synthesis as shown by the measurement of the amount of protein and by the pulse incorporation of radioactive arginine in the 18S enzyme peak in linear sucrose density gradients. During the dark phase of the cell cycle, there is little change in the enzymatic activity as well as in the amount of this enzyme. Pulse-labeling studies using radioactive arginine indicated that there is a slow but detectable rate of synthesis of the carboxylase and of its subunits in the dark. Ru-1,5-P2 carboxylase, prelabeled with radioactive arginine throughout the entire light period, shows a similarly slow rate of degradation in the following dark period. This slow turnover of the enzyme in the dark accounts for the steady levels of carboxylase protein and of enzymatic activity during this period. A wide variety of inhibitors of protein synthesis by 70S and 80S ribosomes abolished the incorporation of [3H]arginine into total Ru-1,5-P2 carboxylase during short-term incubation. These results suggest a tight-coordinated control of the biosynthesis of the small and large subunits of the enzyme. This stringent control is further substantiated by the finding that both subunits are synthesized in sychrony with each other, that the ratio of radioactivity of the small to the large subunit remains constant throughout the entire light-dark cycle, and that the rates of synthesis and of degradation of both subunits are similar to that of the assembled enzyme.     

GUN4-porphyrin complexes bind the ChlH/GUN5 subunit of Mg-Chelatase and promote chlorophyll biosynthesis in Arabidopsis

The GENOMES UNCOUPLED4 (GUN4) protein stimulates chlorophyll biosynthesis by activating Mg-chelatase, the enzyme that commits protoporphyrin IX to chlorophyll biosynthesis. This stimulation depends on GUN4 binding the ChlH subunit of Mg-chelatase and the porphyrin substrate and product of Mg-chelatase. After binding porphyrins, GUN4 associates more stably with chloroplast membranes and was proposed to promote interactions between ChlH and chloroplast membranes—the site of Mg-chelatase activity. GUN4 was also proposed to attenuate the production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) by binding and shielding light-exposed porphyrins from collisions with O₂. To test these proposals, we first engineered Arabidopsis thaliana plants that express only porphyrin binding–deficient forms of GUN4. Using these transgenic plants and particular mutants, we found that the porphyrin binding activity of GUN4 and Mg-chelatase contribute to the accumulation of chlorophyll, GUN4, and Mg-chelatase subunits. Also, we found that the porphyrin binding activity of GUN4 and Mg-chelatase affect the associations of GUN4 and ChlH with chloroplast membranes and have various effects on the expression of ROS-inducible genes. Based on our findings, we conclude that ChlH and GUN4 use distinct mechanisms to associate with chloroplast membranes and that mutant alleles of GUN4 and Mg-chelatase genes cause sensitivity to intense light by a mechanism that is potentially complex.     

Differential Synthesis of Photosystem Cores and Light-Harvesting Antenna during Proplastid to Chloroplast Development in Spirodela oligorrhiza

Proplastids and etioplasts are common starting points for monitoring chloroplast development in higher plants. Although proplastids are the primary precursor of chloroplasts, most proplastid to chloroplast systems are cumbersome to study temporally. Conversely, the etioplast to chloroplast transition is initiated by light and is readily examined as a function of time. Etioplasts, however, are found mostly in plants germinated in the dark and are not an obligatory step in chloroplast development. We have chosen to study chloroplast ontogeny in Spirodela oligorrhiza (Kurtz) Hegelm (a C₃-monocot) because of its unique ability to grow indefinitely in the dark. Ultrastructural, physiological, and molecular evidence is presented in support of a temporal, light-triggered proplastid to chloroplast transition in Spirodela. The dark-grown plants are devoid of chlorophyll, and upon illumination synchronously green over a 3- to 5-day period. Synthesis of chloroplast proteins involved in photosynthesis is coincident with thylakoid assembly, chlorophyll accumulation, and appearance of CO₂ fixation activity. Interestingly, the developmental sequence in Spirodela was slow enough to reveal that biosynthesis of the D1 photosystem II reaction center protein precedes biosynthesis of the major light-harvesting antenna proteins. This, coupled with the high chlorophyll a/b ratio observed early in development, indicated that reaction center assembly occurred prior to accumulation of the light-harvesting complexes. Thus, with Spirodela one can study proplastid to chloroplast conversions temporally in higher plants and follow the process on a time scale that enables a detailed dissection of plastid maturation processes.     

Suppression of a key gene involved in chlorophyll biosynthesis by means of virus-inducing gene silencing

The ChlH gene coding the H subunit of magnesium chelatase, an enzyme involved in chlorophyll biosynthesis, was silenced in Nicotiana benthamiana plants by infection with tobacco mosaic virus vectors (pTMV-30b) containing 67, 214 or 549 nt long ChlH inserts. Silencing of the nuclear ChlH gene induced a chimeric phenotype with green and yellow/white leaves associated with alterations of chloroplast shape and ultrastructure. The symptoms became first evident around veins of young leaves, and only later in the mesophyll tissues. The efficiency of gene silencing was not dependent on the insert orientation, but was strongly correlated with the size of the ChlH insert, providing a flexible method to modulate the level of gene suppression. Silencing efficiency seemed to be strongly dependent on endogenous ChlH mRNA level of the target tissue. Silencing of the ChlH gene with the longest fragment of 549 nt also lowered the accumulation of ChlD and chlorophyll synthetase mRNAs, i.e. other genes involved in chlorophyll biosynthesis.