RELATIONSHIPS AMONG MORPHOLOGICAL STATUS, STEROID HORMONES, AND POST-THAWING VIABILITY OF FROZEN SPERMATOZOA OF MALE MINKE WHALES (BALAENOPTERA ACUTOROSTRATA)

Spermatozoa from 21 mature minke whales ( Balaenoptera acutorostrata ) taken in the Antarctic Ocean for Japanese research were recovered from vasa deferentia, diluted 1:9 in a Tris-based diluent, and frozen at - 80°C on board the vessel. After a period ranging from 45 to 125 d, the samples were transferred to liquid nitrogen and transported to the laboratory. After thawing at 37°C the motility (percentage of motile spermatozoa), vitality (proportion of live spermatozoa), and sperm concentration were determined for each sample. These values were tested for correlations with morphological measurements (body size, body weight, testis weight) and serum concentrations of progesterone (Pd), estradiol-17β (E2), and testosterone (T). Ten of 21 samples had motile spermatozoa (2%-40%). Although no motile spermatozoa were observed in 1.1 samples, all sperm samples were examined by eosinnigrosin staining and showed vitality levels of 3%44%. It was found that the motility (Y = 0.54) and vitality (r = 0.53) of the spermatozoa were significantly (P < 0.01) correlated with the E₂ levels (8.50 ± 1.80 pg/ml). Serum T levels (0.07 ± 0.02 ngml) were significantly correlated with the E₂ levels (r = 0.58, P < 0.01>, but sperm concentrations were not correlated with either Ea or T levels. The present study demonstrates that spermatozoa of minke whales can be successfully cryopreserved.     

IN VITRO FERTILIZATION OF IN VITRO MATURED MINKE WHALE (BALAENOPTERA ACUTOROSTRATA) FOLLICULAR OOCYTES

In vitro fertilization of follicular oocytes harvested from ovaries and matured in vitro was attempted for 55 minke whales ( Balaenoptera acutorostrata ) captured for Japanese research purposes in the Antarctic Ocean during the period from November 1995 to March 1996. In Experiment 1, effects of culture duration (96 h or 120 h) on maturation of follicular oocytes and addition of caffeine (5 mM) and/or heparin (100 pg/ml) on sperm penetration and pro-nuclear formation were investigated. Spermatozoa recovered from the vasa deferentia of four mature males were diluted (5-fold) and frozen at - 80°C. The post-thawed and pooled spermatozoa were used for in vitro insemination. A higher ( P < 0.05) proportion of the oocytes cultured for 120 h (34.2% of 260) progressed beyond the second metaphase stage than of the oocytes cultured for 96 h (26.0% of 262). For the matured oocytes, higher rates of penetration ( P < 0.05) and pronuclear formation ( P < 0.01) were obtained in the oocytes cultured for 120 h (55.1% and 40.4%) than in those cultured for 96 h (32.4 % and 20.6%). Addition of caffeine and heparin did not show a significant effect. In Experiment 2, follicular oocytes matured for 120 h and then inseminated were cultured to examine the subsequent development in two culture systems (with and without co-cultured cumulus cells). Of 448 inseminated oocytes, cleaved embryos (2–16 cells) were observed with (5.8%) and without (4.9%) co-cultured systems. No cleavage was observed in 54 ova without insemination. These results indicate that in vitro fertilization of minke whale in vitro matured follicular oocytes with cryopreserved spermatozoa is possible, yielding cleaved embryos.     

ESTIMATION OF PREY DENSITIES REQUIRED BY WESTERN NORTH ATLANTIC RIGHT WHALES

The apparent lack of significant recovery of western North Atlantic right whale populations may be related to the availability of prey in exploitable densities. We have attempted to estimate the concentration of zooplankton required by right whales to obtain a net energetic benefit over the long term, using estimated values for body weight, metabolic rate, assimilation efficiency, time spent feeding, mouth size and swimming speed. The estimated range of required energy densities is 7.57 to 2,394 kcal m⁻³ (3.17 × 10⁴ to 1.00 × 10⁷ joule m⁻³). These values are from one to more than three orders of magnitude greater than the densest concentration sampled in the vicinity of right whale aggregations in the Great South Channel. Right whales must seek out and exploit extremely dense patches of prey organisms in order to feed efficiently. The presence of such dense patches of zooplankton is likely to be a primary characteristic of spring, summer and fall right whale habitats.     

WEIGHTS AND ANATOMICAL MEASUREMENTS OF NORTHEASTERN ATLANTIC FIN (BALAENOPTERA PHYSALUS, LINNAEUS) AND SEI (B. BOREALIS, LESSON) WHALES

Piecemeal body weights of eleven fin and four sei whales and intact weights of three foetuses, obtained from Iceland, are compared with published weight data. The Icelandic fin are similar to other northern hemisphere animals but are significantly leaner than their Antarctic counterparts. The Icelandic sei appear heavier than the North Pacific sei whales. Their weights cannot be predicted from a North Pacific sei whale weight/length formula. Length, girth and blubber thickness measurements indicate changes in relative body dimensions in the early fin whale foetus compared with juveniles and adults; however, the midterm sei whale foetus is similar to the adult and juvenile sei whales. The blubber appears to form a major component even in the foetal body. The integration of a standard series of lengths, girths and blubber thicknesses in juveniles and adults can provide an estimate of the blubber component. Both girth and length are significant parameters in estimating body weight, a simple weight/length formula being found to be inadequate to allow for variability in body fatness. Evaluation of such a multiple parameter formula for calculating weight appears satisfactory for both fin and sei whales. Apparent weight/length differences between species and stocks may thus be partly due to variations in body fatness.     

SEXUAL COMPOSITION and ANALYSIS OF REPRODUCTIVE FEMALES IN THE NORTH ATLANTIC RIGHT WHALE, EUBALAENA GLACIALIS, POPULATION

To test hypotheses involving reproduction and demographics, the sex of individuals must be established, but many species of Cetacea are not obviously dimorphic. In the North Atlantic right whale, Eubalaena glacialis , population, the sex of 61 males and 55 females had been determined previously by observation of the urogenital region, and the sex of 43 more females had been inferred from repeated sightings with a calf. To confirm the sex of some of these animals and to identify the sex of mote animals, genomic DNA was isolated from skin samples of 95 individual right whales (54 from among those described above and 41 additional recognizable individuals). The DNA was surveyed using the human Y-chromosome probe pDP1007. With Eco RI-digested DNA, a clear, sex-discriminating banding pattern was apparent. This method verified the sex of all 54 animals whose sex was previously known or inferred and identified the sex of an additional 41 recognizable individuals. A total of 89 male and 111 female right whales was identified in the population. The most unbiased estimate of sex ratio available is the 36 male and 34 female calves identified by genital morphology and DNA techniques. The sex ratio of this sample does not differ significantly from unity (P = 0.811). Only 38% (58/152) of the females in the North Atlantic population are known to have been reproductively successful compared with 54% in the population of right whales in the western South Atlantic. The population growth rate reported for the North Atlantic population is only 33% of that reported for right whales in the South Atlantic. Thirteen adult North Atlantic females have been identified that have not been known to calve during the past 11 yr. These data suggest that the absence of measurable recovery may be due to a combination of fewer actively reproducing females and lower reproductive rates of some females.     

BLUE WHALE, BALAENOPTERA MUSCULUS, VOCALIZATIONS FROM THE WATERS OFF CENTRAL CALIFORNIA

Low-frequency calls produced by blue whales, Balaenoptera musculus , were recorded in the northeastern Pacific Ocean off central California. Two blue whales were sighted during a vessel-based marine mammal survey, and when sonobuoys were subsequently deployed, blue whale calls were recorded. A third recording was obtained during the survey from a blue whale that was not seen. Recordings with 15, 25, and 55 min of calls were obtained from these individuals. The three recordings all contain two-part, low-frequency calls with slight interindividual variation. The calls consist of an amplitude modulated (AM) signal with a mean center frequency of 16.5 Hz, followed by a downsweep whose mean center frequency sweeps from 18.2 Hz to 16.6 Hz. The recordings are compared with blue whale recordings from the Pacific and Atlantic Oceans. The geographic variability suggests that blue whale calls may be used as an acoustic indicator of stock identity.     

GEOGRAPHICAL VARIATION IN METRIC SKULL CHARACTERS AMONG PROPOSED SUBPOPULATIONS AND STOCKS OF HARBOR PORPOISE, PHOCOENA PHOCOENA, IN THE WESTERN NORTH ATLANTIC

A total of 433 skulls of harbor porpoises, Phocoena phocoena , were examined to evaluate geographical variation within the western North Atlantic, using analysis of covariance and discriminant analysis based on 45 measurements of skull components. The relationship between condylobasal length and body length was sigmoid in both sexes. Condylobasal length is generally less in adult males than in adult females.
Despite some overlap, morphological differences between different regions and even adjacent local stocks could be recognized by ANCOVA and discriminant analysis. The percentage of correct classification by discriminant functions was 65.2% for the four regional samples: (1) North Canadian Atlantic (which includes Gulf of St. Lawrence and Newfoundland), (2) Bay of Fundy, (3) Gulf of Maine-New York, and (4) Maryland-South Carolina. It was 65.9% for the four local geographical areas (10s of km) within the Bay of Fundy; Quoddy-region porpoises revealed a closer relationship with the southwestern Nova Scotia population than with other adjacent stocks. The results at this level imply that gene flow is restricted to some degree even among closely adjacent geographical units. Management of this species should aim, therefore, for conservation of a variety of local stocks.     

BIOGEOGRAPHIC ANALYSIS OF THE ARMORED PLANKTONIC DINOFLAGELLATE CERATIUM IN THE NORTH ATLANTIC AND ADJACENT SEAS1

The distribution of the dinoflagellate genus Ceratium Schrank (Dinophyceae) in the North Atlantic and adjacent seas was studied by a combination of new observations on a large number of plankton samples collected from the northeastern Atlantic and North Sea, data from cruises off the east coast of North America and Caribbean Sea, and reports in the literature of the past 90 years. Seventy species were recorded, and their distribution was examined by several methods. Distribution maps were plotted for all species, and from these the ranges of temperature tolerance were derived. The 240 sets of data, which took the form of lists of species present in 5° latitude / longitude blocks obtained from the new work and the published material, were analyzed by clustering and ordination multivariate techniques using the programs Twinspan and Decorana. Analysis of the individual species showed that surface water temperature is the most important factor determining distribution and the number of species in a particular area. Warm water and /or low latitudes have many more species than cold waters and/or high latitudes. For example, at 5°N there are on average 23 species per block, whereas at 60° N there are only 8 species. On the basis of this work, the Ceratium species are divided into Group 1, Arctic-temperate species normally only found in water of less than 15°C; Group 2, cosmopolitan species, which are found virtually everywhere and are the species most likely to form blooms or “brown water”; Group 3, intermediate species, which extend into neither the coldest nor the warmest water; Group 4, temperate-tropical species, which have a lower temperature boundary of 5°–12° C; Group 5, warm-temperate-tropical species with a lower temperature boundary of 14°–15°C; and Group 6, tropical species, which are rarely found in water of less than 20° C. Analysis of the sample sites also confirmed the predominant influence of temperature, and the Atlantic Ocean was divided into four biogeographical zones of which the boundaries follow isotherms of surface water temperature. Zone 1 consists of the Arctic and subarctic area, with the southern boundary closely following the 10° mean annual temperature (MAT) line. Zone 2 is an intermediate or cold-temperate zone, of which the southern boundary follows the winter 10° C MAT isotherm or the similarly placed summer 15° isotherm. Zone 3 is the warm-temperate or subtropical zone, which is very broad. The southern boundary closely follows the 25°C summer isotherm. Zone 4 is the tropical zone, where water temperature is never likely to be much less than 23°C. These findings are discussed in relation to experimental work and environmental observations. We suggest that the genus Ceratium provides an excellent tool for defining ocean currents and temperature changes and may become of value in studies of global change.     

NORTH ATLANTIC RIGHT WHALE DISTRIBUTION IN RELATION TO SEA-SURFACE TEMPERATURE IN THE SOUTHEASTERN UNITED STATES CALVING GROUNDS

Standardized aerial surveys were used to document the winter (December–March) distribution of North Atlantic right whales in their calving area off the coasts of Georgia and northeastern Florida (1991–1998). Survey data were collected within four survey zones in and adjacent to federally designated critical habitat. These data, including whale‐sighting locations and sampling effort, were used to describe right whale distribution in relation to sea‐surface temperature (SST) from satellite‐derived images. Locations where whales were sighted (n= 609) had an overall mean SST of 14.3°C ± 2.1° (range 8°–22°C). Data from two survey zones having sufficient data (including the “early warning system” (EWS) zone and the Florida nearshore) were pooled by season and stratified by month to investigate changes in monthly ambient SST and fine‐scale distribution patterns of right whales in relation to SST within spatially explicit search areas. Using Monte Carlo techniques, SSTs and latitudes (means and standard deviations) of locations where whales were sighted were compared to a sampling distribution of each variable derived from daily‐search areas. Overall, results support a nonrandom distribution of right whales in relation to SST: during resident months (January and February), whales exhibited low variability in observed SST and a suggested southward shift in whale distribution toward warmer SSTs in the EWS zone; while in the relatively warmer and southernmost survey zone (Florida nearshore), right whales were concentrated in the northern, cooler portion. Our results support that warm Gulf Stream waters, generally found south and east of delineated critical habitat, represent a thermal limit for right whales and play an important role in their distribution within the calving grounds. These results affirm the inclusion of SST in a multivariate predictive model for right whale distribution in their southeastern habitat.     

TAXONOMIC STATUS AND GEOGRAPHICAL CRANIAL VARIATION OF COMMON DOLPHINS (DELPHINUS) IN THE EASTERN NORTH ATLANTIC

The common dolphin has a widespread distribution and is relatively abundant in the temperate to subtropical waters of the eastern North Atlantic. However, it is not known whether different species, subspecies, or populations occur in this region. We examined 393 common dolphin skulls obtained from both stranded and bycaught individuals collected between 1901 and 2005. The series included skulls of 152 females and 199 males, from animals ranging in body length from 93 to 230 cm and 105 to 244 cm, respectively. The ranges of total body length, skull size, RL/ZGW ratio and maximum upper alveolar (tooth) count of common dolphins in the eastern North Atlantic overlapped with those of both short- ( D. delphis ) and long-beaked ( D. capensis ) species found off the Californian coast. However, in the absence of additional data, the common dolphin in the eastern North Atlantic is regarded here as a large form of Delphinus delphis . Sexual dimorphism and possible sex-linked characters were identified within the sample. Results of the current study indicate some population differentiation within the eastern North Atlantic, with common dolphins off Portugal showing segregation in morphometric characteristics from common dolphins in other areas.     

CATCHES OF HUMPBACK AND OTHER WHALES FROM SHORE STATIONS AT MOSS LANDING AND TRINIDAD, CALIFORNIA, 1919–1926

Logbook data from California shore whaling stations at Moss Landing (1919–1922 and 1924) and Trinidad (1920 and 1922–1926) are analyzed. The logs for the two stations record the taking of 2,111 whales, including 1,871 humpbacks, 177 fin whales, 26 sei whales, 3 blue whales, 12 sperm whales, 7 gray whales, 1 right whale, 1 Baird's beaked whale, and 13 whales of unspecified type (probably humpbacks). Most whales were taken from spring to autumn, but catches were made in all months of some years. The sex ratios of humpback, fin, and sei whales (the three species with sufficient sample sizes to test) did not differ from parity. Primary prey, determined from stomach contents, included sardines and euphausiids for both humpback and fin whales, and 'plankton' (probably euphausiids) for sei whales. The prevalence of pregnancy was 0.46 among mature female humpbacks and 0.43 among mature female fin whales, although these values are reported with caution. Information on length distribution for all species is summarized. Analysis of the catch data for this and other areas supports the current view that humpback whales along the west coast of the continental United States comprise a single feeding stock and also suggests that the present population is well below pre-exploitation levels.     

FOOD AND FEEDING ECOLOGY OF THE COMMON DOLPHIN (DELPHINUS DELPHIS) IN THE OCEANIC NORTHEAST ATLANTIC AND COMPARISON WITH ITS DIET IN NERITIC AREAS

The short-beaked common dolphin, Delphinus delphis , is abundant in both neritic and oceanic habitats. These two domains differ largely in terms of the nature of forage organisms and their availability to surface-bound top predators, which suggests that the common dolphin should show extensive variability in foraging strategies as a response to these different habitats. However, although its diet is well known over continental shelves, so far, mostly because of sampling issues, nothing has been published on its diet in oceanic habitats. In this study, the diet of sixty-three common dolphins bycaught in the French albacore tuna driftnet fishery in the summers of 1992–1993 in the oceanic Bay of Biscay was determined from their stomach contents and compared to neritic studies. The diet was dominated by fish (90% by number [N] and 53% by mass of total diet [M]). Cephalopods were also important in the total diet (9%N, 46%M) but were a prey of secondary importance in the fresh fraction (3%N, 10%M), presumably due to longer retention of cephalopod remains in the stomach. Crustaceans were of minor importance. At the species level, the myctophid fish ( Notoscopelus kroeyeri ) largely dominated the diet. Prey size ranged from 1 to 68 cm, but the majority of preys were from 2 to 30 cm. The prey characteristics and their state of digestion suggest that the common dolphin forages preferentially on small schooling, vertically migrating mesopelagic fauna in the surface layer at dusk and early night. The diet is taxonomically distinct from results obtained in neritic studies but is similar in terms of prey type and the corresponding feeding behavior.     

GROWTH CHARACTERISTICS OF MARINE PHYTOPLANKTON DETERMINED BY CELL CYCLE PROTEINS: THE CELL CYCLE OF ETHMODISCUS REX (BACILLARIOPHYCEAE) IN THE SOUTHWESTERN NORTH ATLANTIC OCEAN AND CARIBBEAN SEA1

Ethmodiscus spp. is an important contributor to oceanic tropical-ooze sediments and thus might be an important transport vehicle of carbon from the ocean surface to sediments. The knowledge of its cell cycle and growth rate, which is still lacking, is necessary to evaluate the importance of Ethmodiscus in nutrient cycling and to solve the discrepancy between its high sedimentary abundance and rarity in the plankton. We used immunofluorescence of a cell cycle protein, prolqerating cell nuclear antigen (PCNA), and DNA-specific staining to study the progression of the cell cycle and roughly estimate the growth rate for E. rex (Rattray) Wiseman and Hendey in the southwestern North Atlantic Ocean and Caribbean Sea in June 1994 and January 1995. During the cell division cycle, the chloroplasts appeared to synthesize DNA before the nucleus (S phase). Following the S phase, the nucleus moved from one end of the cell toward the center underneath the midline of the girdle band (G2 phase) where it divided (M phase). During a very brief period, the parent cell split and moved apart from the girdle midline, and two new valves were produced (late M phase). The two daughter nuclei apparently remained attached at the joint of the two newly produced valves, where they appeared to be responsible for coordinating the symmetrical formation of the new valves. The morphologically complete daughter cells remained joined for a short period of time before separating into solitary cells whose nucleus was located at one end of the cell. Derived from the phase fraction curves, the duration of the cell cycle phases decreased in the order from G1, S, G2, to M. A conservative estimate of the growth rate in the study area obtained by using PCNA immunostaining was 0.39–0.46 d^?1 in June and 0.15 d^?1 in January. The validity and implication of the growth rate estimates are discussed.     

美国北卡罗来纳州上三叠统北方阔齿兽(犬齿兽类:横齿兽科)的齿系和牙齿替换

描述了产自美国北卡罗来纳州上三叠统横齿兽类北方阔齿兽新材料的牙齿。基于牙齿的特征,尤其是犬后齿的形态,这些标本被暂归入杰斐逊北方阔齿兽Boreogomphodon jeffersoni;不过它们的下阔齿型犬后齿前横脊一般有两个而不是3个齿尖。根据牙齿大小、直接替换情况,推测阔齿型齿从后部萌发,从前部脱落。这个类群仅有一代阔齿型犬后齿;至少有一代,可能是两代裂齿型犬后齿。