Prevalence of Toxoplasma gondii infection diagnosed by PCR in farmed red foxes, arctic foxes and raccoon dogs

The aim of this study was to compare Toxoplasma gondii infection in three canid species: red fox Vulpes vulpes, arctic fox Vulpes lagopus and raccoon dog Nyctereutesprocyonoides kept at the same farm. Anal swabs were taken from 24 adult and 10 juvenile red foxes, 12 adult arctic foxes, three adult and seven juvenile raccoon dogs. Additionally, muscle samples were taken from 10 juvenile red foxes. PCR was used to detect T. gondii DNA. T. gondii infection was not detected in any of the arctic foxes; 60% ofraccoon dogs were infected; the prevalence of the parasite in material from red fox swabs was intermediate between the prevalence observed in arctic foxes and raccoon dogs. It is possible that susceptibility and immune response to the parasite differ between the three investigated canid species. T. gondii DNA was detected in muscle tissue of five young foxes. The results of this study suggest that T. gondii infection is not rare in farmed canids.     

Association of MC3R gene polymorphisms with body weight in the red fox and comparative gene organization in four canids

There are five genes encoding melanocortin receptors. Among canids, the genes have mainly been studied in the dog (MC1R, MC2R and MC4R). The MC4R gene has also been analysed in the red fox. In this report, we present a study of chromosome localization, comparative sequence analysis and polymorphism of the MC3R gene in the dog, red fox, arctic fox and Chinese raccoon dog. The gene was localized by FISH to the following chromosome: 24q24‐25 in the dog, 14p16 in the red fox, 18q13 in the arctic fox and NPP4p15 in the Chinese raccoon dog. A high identity level of the MC3R gene sequences was observed among the species, ranging from 96.0% (red fox – Chinese raccoon dog) to 99.5% (red fox – arctic fox). Altogether, eight polymorphic sites were found in the red fox, six in the Chinese raccoon dog and two in the dog, while the arctic fox appeared to be monomorphic. In addition, association of several polymorphisms with body weight was analysed in red foxes (the number of genotyped animals ranged from 319 to 379). Two polymorphisms in the red fox, i.e. a silent substitution c.957A>C and c.*185C>T in the 3′‐flanking sequence, showed a significant association (P < 0.01) with body weight.     

Spatial use and interaction of the invasive raccoon dog and the native red fox in Central Europe: competition or coexistence?

The main objective was to discover extent of interference and/or exploitative competition between the native red fox (Vulpes vulpes) and the introduced, invasive raccoon dog (Nyctereues proconoides) in the intensively used, agricultural landscape of northeast Germany (Mecklenburg-Western Pomerania) using very high frequency (VHF) radio telemetry. We recorded location data for 12 foxes and 16 raccoon dogs between July 2004 and December 2006. Species had similar average home range sizes estimated in each season (K95). Home ranges of adjacent raccoon dogs and foxes overlapped from 0.5 to 74.5 % with a mean of 26.4 %. We found a significantly different home range overlap index between the species showing that raccoon dog ranges shifted between seasons to a greater extent than red fox ranges. The raccoon dog differed significantly from the red fox in its use of habitat types, preferring dense vegetation cover and avoiding open areas. The red fox displayed less preference for or avoidance of specific habitat types. Moreover, an almost neutral inter-specific interaction index ranging from ?0.12 to 0.12 indicates that raccoon dogs and red foxes ignored each other. It is concluded that widespread and available resources and differences in spatial use patterns prevent competition between red foxes and raccoon dogs in the agricultural landscape of northeast Germany.     

A comparative analysis of MC4R gene sequence, polymorphism, and chromosomal localization in Chinese raccoon dog and Arctic fox

Numerous mutations of the human melanocortin receptor type 4 (MC4R) gene are responsible for monogenic obesity, and some of them appear to be associated with predisposition or resistance to polygenic obesity. Thus, this gene is considered a functional candidate for fat tissue accumulation and body weight in domestic mammals. The aim of the study was comparative analysis of chromosome localization, nucleotide sequence, and polymorphism of the MC4R gene in two farmed species of the Canidae family, namely the Chinese raccoon dog (Nycterutes procyonoides procyonoides) and the arctic fox (Alopex lagopus). The whole coding sequence, including fragments of 3'UTR and 5'UTR, shows 89% similarity between the arctic fox (1276 bp) and Chinese raccoon dog (1213 bp). Altogether, 30 farmed Chinese raccoon dogs and 30 farmed arctic foxes were searched for polymorphisms. In the Chinese raccoon dog, only one silent substitution in the coding sequence was identified; whereas in the arctic fox, four InDels and two single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) in the 5'UTR and six silent SNPs in the exon were found. The studied gene was mapped by FISH to the Chinese raccoon dog chromosome 9 (NPP9q1.2) and arctic fox chromosome 24 (ALA24q1.2-1.3). The obtained results are discussed in terms of genome evolution of species belonging to the family Canidae and their potential use in animal breeding.     

Two candidate genes (FTO and INSIG2) for fat accumulation in four canids: chromosome mapping, gene polymorphisms and association studies of body and skin weight of red foxes

Fat accumulation is a polygenic trait which has a significant impact on human health and animal production. Obesity is also an increasingly serious problem in dog breeding. The FTO and INSIG2 are considered as candidate genes associated with predisposition for human obesity. In this report we present a comparative genomic analysis of these 2 genes in 4 species belonging to the family Canidae - the dog and 3 species which are kept in captivity for fur production, i.e. red fox, arctic fox and Chinese raccoon dog. We cytogenetically mapped these 2 loci by FISH and compared the entire coding sequence of INSIG2 and a fragment of the coding sequence of FTO. The FTO gene was assigned to the following chromosomes: CFA2q25 (dog), VVU2q21 (red fox), ALA8q25 (arctic fox) and NPP10q24-25 (Chinese raccoon dog), while the INSIG2 was mapped to CFA19q17, VVU5p14, ALA24q15 and NPP9q22, respectively. Altogether, 29 SNPs were identified (16 in INSIG2 and 13 in FTO) and among them 2 were missense substitutions in the dog (23C/T, Thr>Met in the FTO gene and 40C/A, Arg>Ser in INSIG2). The distribution of these 2 SNPs was studied in 14 dog breeds. Two synonymous SNPs, one in the FTO gene (-28T>C in the 5'-flanking region) and one in the INSIG2 (10175C>T in intron 2), were used for the association studies in red foxes (n = 390) and suggestive evidence was observed for their association with body weight (FTO, p < 0.08) and weight of raw skin (INSIG2, p < 0.05). These associations indicate that both genes are potential candidates for growth or adipose tissue accumulation in canids. We also suggest that the 2 missense substitutions found in dogs should be studied in terms of genetic predisposition to obesity.     

Use of RAPD technique in evolution studies of four species in the family Canidae

The RAPD-PCR technique was applied to identify genetic markers able to distinguish between four canid species: the arctic fox (Alopex lagopus), red fox (Vulpes vulpes), Chinese raccoon dog (Nyctereutes procyonoides procyonoides) and six breeds of the domestic dog (Canis familiaris). A total of 29 ten-nucleotide arbitrary primers were screened for their potential use in the differentiation of these species. Ten primers amplified RAPD profiles that made it possible to distinguish between the investigated taxa. A number of species-specific bands was scored within RAPD profiles produced by these primers: 35.6% of all the polymorphic bands were unique to the Chinese raccoon dog, 29.6% were unique to the domestic dog, 21.2% were diagnostic for the red fox and 13.6% for the arctic fox. No breed-specific fragments were amplified from canine DNA; however, three primers produced bands characteristic for the dog, but not present in all of the investigated breeds. A Neighbor-Joining tree constructed on the basis of the analysis of RAPD profiles amplified by six primers revealed that the phylogenetic distance between the dog and the arctic fox is larger than the distance between the dog and the red fox. The phylogenetic branch of the Chinese raccoon dog was the most distinct on the dendrogram, suggesting that this species belongs to a different phylogenetic lineage. Obtained results make it possible to conclude that RAPD analysis can be a powerful tool for developing molecular markers useful in distinguishing between species of the family Canidae and for studying their phylogenetic relations.     

Comparative chromosomal localization of the canine-derived BAC clones containing LEP and IGF1 genes in four species of the family Canidae

In the present report we show the chromosomal localization of two BAC clones, carrying the leptin (LEP) and insuline-like growth factor 1 (IGF1) genes, respectively, in four species belonging to the family Canidae: the dog, red fox, arctic fox and the Chinese raccoon dog. The assignments are in agreement with earlier data obtained from comparative chromosome painting for the dog, red fox and arctic fox.     

The diet of feral raccoon dog (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Nyctereutes procyonoides</Emphasis>) and native badger (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Meles meles</Emphasis>) and red fox (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Vulpes vulpes</Emphasis>) in Denmark

The raccoon dog (Nyctereutes procyonoides) is an East Asian Canid that has been introduced in Europe. Introduction of alien species is an increasing conservation issue. We examined the diet of a recently established raccoon dog population in Denmark by analysing stomach content in 249 carcasses collected in 2008–2016. Raccoon dog diet was compared to the diet of native badger (Meles meles) and red fox (Vulpes vulpes) in Denmark. The most common food for raccoon dogs were invertebrates (frequency of occurrence, FO 69%), small mammals (FO 68%), birds (FO 41%), fruits (FO 38%), amphibians (FO 36%) and carrions (FO 34%). The occurrence of invertebrates was highest during spring and summer, while fruits, cereals and carrions were eaten most often during autumn and winter. As expected, raccoon dog shared the major food categories with badger and red fox, but generally, it had a wider dietary niche. Overall, dietary overlap between raccoon dog and badger was 0.74 (Pianka index, O_jk). The dietary overlap with red fox was relatively high in all seasons, peaking in summer (O_jk 0.87) and dropping in winter (O_jk 0.79). Despite the dietary overlap between the alien racoon dog and native red fox and badger, the species may coexist due to partitioning of feeding habitats and/or because the red fox is limited by other factors, e.g. diseases and anthropogenic activities. The introduced raccoon dog seems to fit a dietary niche between badger and red foxes in human-dominated landscapes in north-western Europe.     

An Epidemic of Sylvatic Rabies in Finland

When rabies reappeared in Finland in April 1988, the country had been rabies free since 1959. Soon a picture of sylvatic rabies become evident, its main vector and victim being the raccoon dog (Nyctereutes procyonoides). Between 8 April 1988 and 16 February 1989, 66 virologically verified cases were recorded (48 raccoon dogs, 12 red foxes, 2 badgers, 2 cats, l dog and 1 dairy bull) in an area estimated at 1700 km2 in south-eastern Finland. The greatest distance between recorded cases was 67 km. A positive reaction with monoclonal antibody p-41 indicated that the virus was an arctic-type strain. A field trial on oral immunization of small predators was initiated in September 1988 using Tübingen fox baits according to the Bavarian model of bait distribution. Each bait contained 5*107 TCID50/ml modified live rabies virus (SAD-B19). The 6 months’ surveillance indicate a seroconversion rate of 72% (N=126) in the raccoon dog population, 67% (N=56) in the red foxes and 13% (N=16) in the badgers, when titers ≥1.0 IU/ml are considered seropositive. In the whole follow-up period, no statistically significant difference could be detected between the raccoon dogs and red foxes in the rate of seroconversion or in the uptake of tetracycline from the baits. Notably high antibody levels were recorded in both raccoon dogs and red foxes within 4–5 months after vaccination. Of the seropositive animals, the proportion of animals with titers 3.0 IU/ml or greater was higher in raccoon dogs (73%) than in red foxes (51%) (x2= 5.29, p< 0.05). The trial shows that raccoon dogs can be immunized against rabies in the field with vaccine baits originally developed for controlling sylvatic rabies in foxes.     

Development of a cytogenetic map for the Chinese raccoon dog (Nyctereutes procyonoides procyonoides) and the arctic fox (Alopex lagopus) genomes, using canine-derived microsatellite probes

New chromosomal assignments of canine-derived cosmid clones containing microsatellites to the Chinese raccoon dog and arctic fox genomes are presented in the study. The localizations are in agreement with data obtained from comparative chromosome painting experiments between the dog and arctic fox genomes. However, paracentric inversions have been detected by comparing the loci order in canid karyotypes. The number of physically mapped loci increased to thirty-five both in the Chinese raccoon dog and in the arctic fox. Furthermore, the present status of the cytogenetic map of the Chinese raccoon dog and arctic fox is presented in this study.     

Mercury in wild terrestrial carnivorous mammals from north-western Poland and unusual fish diet of red fox

Total mercury concentrations were determined in the kidney (K), liver (L), and pectoral muscle (M) of 19 individuals representing wild carnivorous mammals from NW Poland: 10 red foxes Vulpes vulpes (Linnaeus, 1758), 3 raccoon dogs Nyctereutes procyonoides Gray, 1834, 2 badgers Meles meles Linnaeus, 1758, 3 pine martens Martes martes Linnaeus, 1758, and 1 polecat Mustela putorius Linnaeus, 1758. The sample of red fox included 3 immature specimens found on Mielin Island; the island supports a black cormorant colony, and the foxes found there had fed mostly on cormorant nestlings as well as on fish and their remains. In addition to the Mielin Island foxes, the group of foxes included 3 other immature and 4 adult individuals. The highest mean of mercury concentrations were revealed in the Mielin red fox juveniles: 5.11, 4.52, and 1.56 mg/kg d.w. being recorded in K, L, and M. No significant differences in mercury concentrations in the respective tissues were found between the remaining immature and adult red foxes; their mercury concentrations were several times lower than those of the Mielin individuals. In all the animals except the Mielin foxes, mercury concentrations in K, L, and M did not exceed 1.3, 1.0 and 0.5 mg/kg d.w., respectively, the highest values being in badgers (which feed mostly on soil invertebrates), followed by pine martens and then the canids (red fox and raccoon dog). Studies on common and widely distributed terrestrial animals, particularly red fox and badger, may provide numerous valuable comparative data on mercury contamination of different areas of the northern hemisphere.     

Ecology of wildlife rabies in Europe

• 1 The number of wildlife rabies cases has increased in Europe in recent years. We review the epizootiology of wildlife rabies in Europe, paying special attention to recent changes to the situation of two important vector species: the red fox and the raccoon dog. Red fox Vulpes vulpes has been the main vector of rabies since 1945, but the number and proportion of raccoon dog Nyctereutes procyonoides cases has rapidly increased during the past few years, particularly in north‐eastern Europe.
• 2 The transmission rate (average number of susceptible animals infected by each rabid animal) is critical for rabies spread and is partly determined by population density. Both raccoon dogs and foxes live in pairs. Foxes also live in family groups. Pairs and groups share their territories. Home range size usually correlates negatively with population density. Fox home ranges are 50–1500 ha, those of raccoon dogs 150–700 ha. The threshold value for rabies spread among foxes is estimated to be 0.63 individuals/km². Although fox density in eastern and northern Europe may be lower than this, the pooled density of foxes and raccoon dogs exceeds the threshold density.
• 3 Animal movements, especially dispersal of young, pose a risk for rabies spread. Although the likelihood of an epizootic is highest where fox and raccoon dog densities are highest, rabies may spread fastest where population densities are lower, because dispersal distances tend to correlate negatively with population density.
• 4 Oral vaccinations have been more effective in rabies control than culling foxes. Where two vector species exist, vaccination should be conducted twice a year, because most raccoon dogs disperse in autumn but some foxes do not disperse before mid‐ or late winter.
• 5 New rabies models, based on two vector species and their interaction, and which take into account the hibernation period of raccoon dogs, are needed for north‐eastern Europe.

     

Natal den selection by sympatric arctic and red foxes on Herschel Island,Yukon, Canada

In the twentieth century, red fox (Vulpes vulpes) expanded into the Canadian Arctic, where it competes with arctic fox (Vulpes lagopus) for food and shelter. Red fox dominates in physical interactions with the smaller arctic fox, but little is known about competition between them on the tundra. On Hershel Island, north Yukon, where these foxes are sympatric, we focused on natal den choice, a critical aspect of habitat selection. We tested the hypothesis that red fox displaces arctic fox from dens in prey-rich habitats. We applied an approach based on model comparisons to analyse a 10-year data set and identify factors important to den selection. Red fox selected dens in habitats that were more prey-rich in spring. When red foxes reproduced, arctic fox selected dens with good springtime access, notably many burrows unblocked by ice and snow. These provided the best refuge early in the reproductive season. In the absence of red foxes, arctic foxes selected dens offering good shelter (i.e. large isolated dens). Proximity to prey-rich habitats was consistently less important than the physical aspects of dens for arctic fox. Our study shows for the first time that red foxes in the tundra select dens associated primarily with prey-rich areas, while sympatric arctic foxes do not. These results fit a model of red fox competitively interfering with arctic fox, the first detailed study of such competition in a true arctic setting.     

The isozyme spectra of lactate dehydrogenase in the tissues of the raccoon dog <Emphasis Type="Italic">Nyctereutes procyonoides</Emphasis> in the autumn

An electrophoretic assay of lactate dehydrogenase (EC 1.1.1.27) isozymes in the tissue homogenates of cardiac and skeletal muscles, kidney, lungs, spleen, and liver of the raccoon dog Nyctereutes procyonoides from two different geographic zones, viz., northwestern Russia and Poland, as well as the Arctic blue fox Alopex lagopus L. and the red fox Vulpes vulpes L. was performed during the preparatory period to the winter season. Raccoon dogs, which hibernate under natural conditions, differ from other canids (the red fox and Arctic blue fox) to which they are close taxonomically by their body weight and by the higher proportion of aerobic H subunits of lactate dehydrogenase in all organs except for the heart. A higher content of “fast” anode fractions, lactate dehydrogenase-1 and lactate dehydrogenase-2, in the heart, kidney, lungs, liver, and spleen was detected in the raccoon dogs from the northern region compared to those from the southern geographic zone. The shift in the reaction catalyzed by lactate dehydrogenase towards the production of pyruvate indicates that this metabolite is necessary for the synthesis of fatty acids during lipogenesis in the autumn.     

Chromosomal evolution of the Canidae. II. Divergence from the primitive carnivore karyotype

The Giemsa-banding patterns of chromosomes from the arctic fox (Alopex lagopus), the red fox (Vulpes vulpes), the kit fox (Vulpes macrotis), and the raccoon dog (Nyctereutes procyonoides) are compared. Despite their traditional placement in different genera, the arctic fox and the kit fox have an identical chromosome morphology and G-banding pattern. The red fox has extensive chromosome arm homoeology with these two species, but has only two entire chromosomes in common. All three species share some chromosomes with the raccoon dog, as does the high diploid-numbered grey wolf (Canis lupus, 2n = 78). Moreover, some chromosomes of the raccoon dog show partial or complete homoeology with metacentric feline chromosomes which suggests that these are primitive canid chromosomes. We present the history of chromosomal rearrangements within the Canidae family based on the assumption that a metacentric-dominated karyotype is primitive for the group.     

Phylogenetic implications of the 38 putative ancestral chromosome segments for four canid species.

Chromosome homologies between the Japanese raccoon dog (Nectereutes procyonoides viverrinus, 2n = 39 + 2-4 B chromosomes) and domestic dog (Canis familiaris, 2n = 78) have been established by hybridizing a complete set of canine paint probes onto high-resolution G-banded chromosomes of the raccoon dog. Dog chromosomes 1, 13, and 19 each correspond to two raccoon dog chromosome segments, while the remaining 35 dog autosomes each correspond to a single segment. In total, 38 dog autosome paints revealed 41 conserved segments in the raccoon dog. The use of dog painting probes has enabled integration of the raccoon dog chromosomes into the previously established comparative map for the domestic dog, Arctic fox (Alopex lagopus), and red fox (Vulpes vulpes). Extensive chromosome arm homologies were found among chromosomes of the red fox, Arctic fox, and raccoon dog. Contradicting previous findings, our results show that the raccoon dog does not share a single biarmed autosome in common with the Arctic fox, red fox, or domestic cat. Comparative analysis of the distribution patterns of conserved chromosome segments revealed by dog paints in the genomes of the canids, cats, and human reveals 38 ancestral autosome segments. These segments could represent the ancestral chromosome arms in the karyotype of the most recent ancestor of the Canidae family, which we suggest could have had a low diploid number, based on comparisons with outgroup species.     

Bioactivity of the compounds in genus Dysoxylum

The diets of the wolf Canis lupus, red fox Vulpes vulpes and raccoon dog Nyctereutes ussurienusis Matschie were studied in the grassland of eastern Inner Mongolia from August to October in 2007 and from March to July in 2008. Feces were collected from dens and latrines. The frequency of occurrence and the dry weight of the remains of each food item in the feces were calculated. Livestock (50.65% frequency of occurrence) constituted the bulk of the wolf diet, while small rodents (76.31% frequency of occurrence) were most frequently eaten by the foxes. Small rodents (22.69% frequency of occurrence) were important to the raccoon dogs but they also frequently consumed birds (39.81% frequency of occurrence) and insects (26.39% frequency of occurrence). The wolf was the most omnivorous and the red fox was the least omnivorous of these three kinds of canidae according to the diversity index. The food niches of the wolf and the red fox overlapped more than that of the raccoon dog and other species. These three kinds of canidae shared many resources and consequently competition occurred to them. However, their diets also differed to some extent which helped them to avoid competition. Furthermore, raccoon dogs were dormant in winter when food was scarce, which may be the reason why all these species could coexist in a rather unproductive grassland.     

Food composition and food niche overlap of three kinds of canidae

The diets of the wolf Canis lupus, red fox Vulpes vulpes and raccoon dog Nyctereutes ussurienusis Matschie were studied in the grassland of eastern Inner Mongolia from August to October in 2007 and from March to July in 2008. Feces were collected from dens and latrines. The frequency of occurrence and the dry weight of the remains of each food item in the feces were calculated. Livestock (50.65% frequency of occurrence) constituted the bulk of the wolf diet, while small rodents (76.31% frequency of occurrence) were most frequently eaten by the foxes. Small rodents (22.69% frequency of occurrence) were important to the raccoon dogs but they also frequently consumed birds (39.81% frequency of occurrence) and insects (26.39% frequency of occurrence). The wolf was the most omnivorous and the red fox was the least omnivorous of these three kinds of canidae according to the diversity index. The food niches of the wolf and the red fox overlapped more than that of the raccoon dog and other species. These three kinds of canidae shared many resources and consequently competition occurred to them. However, their diets also differed to some extent which helped them to avoid competition. Furthermore, raccoon dogs were dormant in winter when food was scarce, which may be the reason why all these species could coexist in a rather unproductive grassland.     

Food composition and food niche overlap of three kinds of canidae

The diets of the wolf Canis lupus, red fox Vulpes vulpes and raccoon dog Nyctereutes ussurienusis Matschie were studied in the grassland of eastern Inner Mongolia from August to October in 2007 and from March to July in 2008. Feces were collected from dens and latrines. The frequency of occurrence and the dry weight of the remains of each food item in the feces were calculated. Livestock (50.65% frequency of occurrence) constituted the bulk of the wolf diet, while small rodents (76.31% frequency of occurrence) were most frequently eaten by the foxes. Small rodents (22.69% frequency of occurrence) were important to the raccoon dogs but they also frequently consumed birds (39.81% frequency of occurrence) and insects (26.39% frequency of occurrence). The wolf was the most omnivorous and the red fox was the least omnivorous of these three kinds of canidae according to the diversity index. The food niches of the wolf and the red fox overlapped more than that of the raccoon dog and other species. These three kinds of canidae shared many resources and consequently competition occurred to them. However, their diets also differed to some extent which helped them to avoid competition. Furthermore, raccoon dogs were dormant in winter when food was scarce, which may be the reason why all these species could coexist in a rather unproductive grassland.     

Using the dog genome to find single nucleotide polymorphisms in red foxes and other distantly related members of the Canidae

Single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNP) are the ideal marker for characterizing genomic variation but can be difficult to find in nonmodel species. We explored the usefulness of the dog genome for finding SNPs in distantly related nonmodel canids and evaluated so-ascertained SNPs. Using 40 primer pairs designed from randomly selected bacterial artificial chromosome clones from the dog genome, we successfully sequenced 80-88% of loci in a coyote (Canis latrans), grey fox (Urocyon cinereoargenteus), and red fox (Vulpes vulpes), which compared favourably to a 60% success rate for each species using 10 primer pairs conserved across mammals. Loci were minimally heterogeneous with respect to SNP density, which was similar, overall, in a discovery panel of nine red foxes to that previously reported for a panel of eight wolves (Canis lupus). Additionally, individual heterozygosity was similar across the three canids in this study. However, the proportion of SNP sites shared with the dog decreased with phylogenetic divergence, with no SNPs shared between red foxes and dogs. Density of interspecific SNPs increased approximately linearly with divergence time between species. Using red foxes from three populations, we estimated F(ST) based on each of 42 SNPs and 14 microsatellites and simulated null distributions conditioned on each marker type. Relative to SNPs, microsatellites systematically underestimated F(ST) and produced biased null distributions, indicating that SNPs are superior markers for these functions. By reconstituting the frequency spectrum of SNPs discovered in nine red foxes, we discovered an estimated 77-89% of all SNPs (within the region screened) present in North American red foxes. In sum, these findings indicate that information from the dog genome enables easy ascertainment of random and gene-linked SNPs throughout the Canidae and illustrate the value of SNPs in ecological and evolutionary genetics.