Scaling relationships for woody tissue respiration in two tropical rain forests

The relationship between gross primary productivity (GPP) and net primary productivity (NPP) is not fully understood. One of the uncertainties relevant to this issue is the magnitude of woody tissue respiration. Although some data exist for temperate and boreal zones, measurements of woody tissue respiration in tropical forests are sparse. We made in situ chamber measurements of woody tissue respiration in two tropical rain forests, one in the Brazilian Amazon (Reserva Jarú) and one in Central Cameroon (Mbalmayo Reserve). We made measurements on a wide range of species at each site and over a range of stem diameters from 0·02 to 1·4 m. The rate of efflux of carbon dioxide (CO₂) from bark at 25 °C, R_t, varied from 0·1 to 5·2 µmol m^?2 s^?1 across the two sites, and the efflux was related to both volume and surface area components of the measured stem sections. The temperature response in R_t was slightly higher at Jarú than at Mbalmayo, with Q₁₀ values of 1·8 (± 0·1 SE) and 1·6 (± 0·1 SE), respectively. A log–log regression showed that R_t was significantly related to stem diameter, D (P < 0·001; r² = 0·58–0·62) and was significantly higher at Mbalmayo than at Jarú (P < 0·001), but that the rate of increase in R_t with stem diameter, D, was similar between sites. At the Mbalmayo site, tree growth measurements made over a 4 month period were used to make two estimates of the maintenance (R_m) and construction (R_c) components of respiration embedded in R_t. The two methods agreed closely, suggesting that R_m was approximately 80% of R_c at this site. R_m could be strongly related to D using a sigmoidal relationship that described both surface area and volume components as sources of respiratory CO₂ (r² = 0·71). This functional model was combined with inventory, growth and climate data for the Mbalmayo site to make a first estimate of annual above‐ground woody tissue respiration, R_A, which was 257 (± 18 SE) g C m^?2 year^?1. This value corresponds to approximately 10% of GPP, slightly lower than that found for another tropical rain forest, but higher than for temperate forests. When combined with data from six other sites in tropical, temperate and boreal settings, a very strong relationship was found between R_A and leaf area index (LAI), and between R_A/GPP and LAI (P < 0·001, r² = 0·98). This indicates that R_A exerts an appreciable constraint on NPP and that this constraint varies closely with LAI across widely differing types of woody vegetation.     

Variable effects of nutrient enrichment on soil respiration in mangrove forests

Background and Aims

Mangrove forests are globally important sites of carbon burial that are increasingly exposed to nutrient pollution. Here we assessed the response of soil respiration, an important component of forest carbon budgets, to nutrient enrichment over a wide range of mangrove forests.

Methods

We assessed the response of soil respiration to nutrient enrichment using fertilization experiments within 22 mangrove forests over ten sites. We used boosted regression tree (BRT) models to determine the importance of environmental and plant factors for soil respiration and its responsiveness to fertilizer treatments.

Results

Leaf area index explained the largest proportion of variation in soil respiration rates (LAI, 45.9 %) followed by those of site, which had a relative influence of 39.9 % in the BRT model. Nutrient enrichment enhanced soil respiration only in nine out of 22 forests. Soil respiration in scrub forests showed a positive response to nutrient addition more frequently than taller fringing forests. The response of soil respiration to nutrient enrichment varied with changes in specific leaf area (SLA) and stem extension, with relative influences of 14.4 %, 13.6 % in the BRT model respectively.

Conclusions

Soil respiration in mangroves varied with LAI, but other site specific factors also influenced soil respiration and its response to nutrient enrichment. Strong enhancements in aboveground growth but moderate increases in soil respiration with nutrient enrichment indicated that nutrient enrichment of mangrove forests has likely increased net ecosystem production.     

短期氮添加对东灵山三种森林土壤呼吸的影响

为了分析氮沉降对我国温带地区森林土壤碳循环的影响,以北京东灵山的阔叶林(辽东栎林)和针叶林(华北落叶松林和油松林)为研究对象,通过模拟氮沉降的方式(10g N·m-2·a-1,大约5倍于大气氮沉降速率),探讨了不同温带森林土壤呼吸对氮沉降的短期响应。结果表明:短期氮添加降低了阔叶林土壤呼吸速率,而提高了针叶林土壤呼吸速率,但其短期效应未达到显著性水平。不同森林类型间,土壤呼吸速率(P0.001)和生长季土壤呼吸释放总量(P0.001)均存在显著差异,整体表现为:辽东栎林油松林华北落叶松林,土壤温度是引起不同森林类型间土壤呼吸差异的主要因素。温度-水分双因素模型可以较好地模拟野外条件下3种森林类型土壤呼吸与温度和水分间的关系,解释率约为47%~87%。此外,氮添加可以改变土壤呼吸对温度和水分变化的响应:氮添加后在较高温度且较低水分情况下,土壤呼吸速率明显上升,此时土壤呼吸对温度变化更加敏感。实验结果揭示了氮沉降对我国温带地区不同森林类型土壤呼吸的影响,但其复杂的影响机制仍有待进一步研究。     

模拟酸雨对土壤呼吸影响的研究进展

土壤呼吸是陆地生态系统与大气环境之间进行碳交换的主要途径,在全球碳循环和碳平衡中占有极其重要的地位。全球变化背景下,由于人类活动而导致日益严重的酸雨问题,其对土壤呼吸的影响越来越受到国内外学者的广泛关注。酸雨导致土壤酸化,对土壤微生物代谢活动、植物地上地下生长以及凋落物分解等产生影响,进而影响土壤呼吸。该文综述了模拟酸雨对森林生态系统和农田生态系统土壤呼吸影响的三种结果,即抑制、促进和无影响;酸雨影响土壤呼吸的差异受到酸雨酸性、酸雨处理持续时间以及植被类型、植物生长季节、植被演替阶段以及土壤理化性质等生物和非生物因素的综合影响。低强度和高强度酸雨都倾向于降低土壤呼吸的温度敏感性(Q_(10))。从影响土壤呼吸的四个关键的生物因子,即光合作用、凋落物、微生物、根系生物量,分析了模拟酸雨影响土壤呼吸的潜在机制;但是酸雨影响土壤呼吸的过程复杂,使得土壤呼吸对酸雨的部分响应机理仍存在不确定性。在此基础上总结了现有研究存在的不足,提出了今后需要给予重点关注的四个方面的研究:(1)不同类型生态系统对酸雨响应的研究;(2)土壤各组分呼吸对酸雨响应的研究;(3)模拟酸雨与其他外界因素的共同作用研究;(4)与土壤呼吸相关的生物因子对酸雨响应的研究。     

南亚热带不同演替阶段森林土壤呼吸对模拟酸雨的响应

以鼎湖山不同演替阶段的3种森林类型(马尾松针叶林、针阔叶混交林和季风常绿阔叶林)为研究对象,2009年6月开始,在森林里喷施不同处理水平的模拟酸雨(对照(p H 4.5的天然湖水)、T1(p H 4.0)、T2(p H 3.5)和T3(p H 3.0)),2012年4月—2013年3月对模拟酸雨下土壤呼吸速率及其相关影响因子进行观测,试图揭示南亚热带不同演替阶段森林土壤呼吸对酸雨的响应规律及机制。结果表明:模拟酸雨抑制了森林土壤呼吸,但抑制作用随森林演替阶段、观测季节和处理水平的不同而不同;模拟酸雨没有显著影响松林的土壤呼吸,但却显著地抑制了阔叶林土壤呼吸(P0.05),同时在一定程度上抑制了混交林土壤呼吸(P=0.10);与对照相比,阔叶林T1、T2和T3处理的年平均土壤呼吸速率分别下降了0.1%、10.5%和17.1%,混交林为-1.7%、8.1%和13.9%,而松林则为1.1%、1.9%和8.1%;3个林型土壤呼吸对模拟酸雨的响应敏感性随森林的顺行演替而增强。但模拟酸雨对土壤呼吸的抑制作用具有季节差异性,抑制作用只在湿季达到显著差异,且只有强酸处理T3显著抑制了土壤呼吸。模拟酸雨对土壤呼吸的抑制作用与其胁迫下土壤酸化而导致土壤微生物活性下降有关,这种下降程度也大体上随森林的顺行演替而增强。     

Supply-side controls on soil respiration among Oregon forests

To test the hypothesis that variation in soil respiration is related to plant production across a diverse forested landscape, we compared annual soil respiration rates with net primary production and the subsequent allocation of carbon to various ecosystem pools, including leaves, fine roots, forests floor, and mineral soil for 36 independent plots arranged as three replicates of four age classes in three climatically distinct forest types. Across all plots, annual soil respiration was not correlated with aboveground net primary production (R²=0.06, P>0.1) but it was moderately correlated with belowground net primary production (R²=0.46, P<0.001). Despite the wide range in temperature and precipitation regimes experienced by these forests, all exhibited similar soil respiration per unit live fine root biomass, with about 5 g of carbon respired each year per 1 g of fine root carbon (R²=0.45, P<0.001). Annual soil respiration was only weakly correlated with dead carbon pools such as forest floor and mineral soil carbon (R²=0.14 and 0.12, respectively). Trends between soil respiration, production, and root mass among age classes within forest type were inconsistent and do not always reflect cross‐site trends. These results are consistent with a growing appreciation that soil respiration is strongly influenced by the supply of carbohydrates to roots and the rhizosphere, and that some regional patterns of soil respiration may depend more on belowground carbon allocation than the abiotic constraints imposed on subsequent metabolism.     

中国森林土壤呼吸模式

通过收集国内62个森林样地的土壤呼吸及相关因子数据,分析中国森林土壤呼吸模式.结果表明,中国森林土壤呼吸年通量与年均气温、年均降水量、年凋落物量和年地上净生产力均呈显著的线性正相关,土壤呼吸的Q10则与年均气温和年均降水量均呈显著的负相关.根系呼吸、枯枝落叶层呼吸与土壤呼吸间均呈显著线性正相关;土壤异养呼吸和枯枝落叶层呼吸与年凋落物量呈显著正相关;土壤异养呼吸与自养呼吸间呈显著的线性正相关.根系呼吸、枯枝落叶层呼吸、矿质土壤呼吸占土壤呼吸的比例均值分别为34.7%、20.2%和50.2%.矿质土壤呼吸所占比例与气温和降水量呈显著负相关,而异养呼吸所占比例则与降水量呈显著负相关.根系呼吸所占比例与根系呼吸之间呈渐近线关系(渐近值为45.9%).     

Short-term temperature impact on soil heterotrophic respiration in limed agricultural soil samples

This study sought to investigate the hourly and daily timescale responses of soil CO₂ fluxes to temperature in a limed agricultural soil. Observations from different incubation experiments were compared with the results of a model combining biotic (heterotrophic respiration) and abiotic (carbonate weathering) components. Several samples were pre-incubated for 8–9 days at three temperatures (5, 15 and 25 °C) and then submitted to short-term temperature (STT) cycles (where the temperature was increased from 5 to 35 °C in 10 °C stages, with each stage being 3 h long). During the temperature cycles (hourly timescale), the soil CO₂ fluxes increased significantly with temperature under all pre-incubation temperature (PIT) treatments. A hysteresis effect and negative fluxes during cooling phases were also systematically observed. At a given hourly timescale temperature, there was a negative relationship of the CO₂ fluxes with the PIT. Using the combined model allowed the experimental results to be clearly described, including the negative fluxes and the hysteresis effect, showing the potentially large contribution of abiotic fluxes to total fluxes in limed soils, after STT changes. The fairly good agreement between the measured and simulated flux results also suggested that the biotic flux temperature sensitivity was probably unaffected by timescale (hourly or daily) or PIT. The negative relationship of the CO₂ fluxes with the PIT probably derived from very labile soil carbon depletion, as shown in the simulations. This was not, however, confirmed by soil carbon measurements, which leaves open the possibility of adaptation within the microbial community.     

Rapid and transient response of soil respiration to rain

The influence of rainstorm on soil respiration of a mixed forest in southern New England, USA was investigated with eddy covariance, rain simulation and laboratory incubation. Soil respiration is shown to respond rapidly and instantaneously to the onset of rain and return to the prerain rate shortly after the rain stops. The pulse‐like flux, most likely caused by the decomposition of active carbon compounds in the litter layer, can amount to a loss of 0.18 t C ha^?1 to the atmosphere in a single intensive storm, or 5–10% of the annual net ecosystem production of midlatitude forests. If precipitation becomes more variable in a future warmer world, the rain pulse should play an important part in the transient response of the ecosystem carbon balance to climate, particularly for ecosystems on ridge‐tops with rapid water drainage.     

东北地区4种林分土壤呼吸及温、湿度敏感性对氮添加的短期响应

全球变化中氮沉降日益严重,已对森林生态系统的各个过程产生了重要影响。因此,通过研究氮添加对森林生态系统土壤碳输出的影响,对分析全球变化背景下土壤碳吸存具有重要意义。对黑龙江省帽儿山实验林场白桦(Betula platyphylla)次生林,以及水曲柳(Fraxinus mandschurica)、红松(Pinus koraiensis)、长白落叶松(Larix olgensis)人工林通过2年氮添加(对照(0 kg N hm~(-2) a~(-1)),低氮(50 kg N hm~(-2) a~(-1)),中氮(100 kg N hm~(-2) a~(-1))和高氮(150 kg N hm~(-2) a~(-1)))试验,测定根生物量密度、土壤微生物量碳浓度、土壤呼吸速率及温、湿度敏感性等指标,旨在探讨森林生态系统土壤呼吸对氮添加的短期响应。结果表明:(1)低氮处理对白桦和水曲柳林土壤呼吸速率影响不显著,但显著提高了红松和长白落叶松林土壤呼吸速率;水曲柳林分中高氮处理土壤呼吸速率显著降低于低氮和中氮处理,而其他林分高氮处理土壤呼吸速率仅显著低于低氮处理。(2)氮添加处理下,4种林分中林分土壤呼吸速率与根生物量密度呈极显著正相关,Pearson相关系数为0.81。(3)低氮处理下5 cm和10 cm处土壤呼吸温度敏感性系数Q_(10)值较CK处理分别提高了2.65%和3.12%,高氮处理较CK处理分别降低了6.29%和5.46%。但氮添加处理对土壤呼吸和土壤湿度间的相关性无影响。综上所述,阔叶林与针叶林土壤呼吸速率对氮添加的响应存在差异。根生物量密度是影响不同林分土壤呼吸对短期氮添加响应的主要因素,同时氮添加处理显著改变了土壤温度敏感性系数。     

东北东部5种温带森林的春季土壤呼吸

春季土壤解冻过程是中高纬度地区森林生态系统土壤呼吸(即土壤表面CO2通量,RS)年内变化的一个关键时期,但此期间RS的时间动态规律及其控制机理尚不清楚。以我国东北东部5种温带森林为研究对象,采用静态箱-气相色谱法测定春季土壤解冻时期RS动态及其相关的环境因子。结果表明:在土壤解冻过程中,RS受林型、解冻时期及其交互作用的显著影响。红松(Pinus koraiensis)林、落叶松(Larix gmelinii)林、硬阔叶林、杨桦(Populus davidiana-Betulaplaty phylla)林和蒙古栎(Quercus mongolica)林的RS变化范围依次为:10.0196.0mg·m-·2h-1,5.8217.1mg·m-·2h-1,9.7382.1mg·m-·2h-1,15.8-269.0mg·m-·2h-1和35.9262.5mg·m-·2h-1。RS的平均值随着解冻的进程而增大,其变化趋势大致与土壤温度的变化相吻合。土壤温度极显著地影响RS(R2=0.46-0.77),而土壤含水量对RS的影响则因林型和土壤深度而异。5种林型的土壤呼吸温度系数(Q10)依次为:落叶松林10.9,硬阔叶林7.1,红松林6.5,杨桦林4.3和蒙古栎林2.3。进一步的研究应该集中研究春季自然解冻过程中土壤呼吸的控制机制,尤其是土壤呼吸与土壤微生物种群动态及其活性之间的关系。     

Short-term effects of two aphid species on plant growth and root respiration of three leguminous species

The short-term effects of cowpea aphids ( Aphis craccivora Koch) and pea aphids ( Acyrthosiphon pisum Harris), both Homoptera: Aphididae, on plant growth and respiration of excised, intact roots of cowpea [ Vigna unguiculata (L.) Walp. cv. Caloona], broadbean ( Vicia faba L. cv. Aquadulce) and garden pea ( Pisum sativum L. cv. Victory Freezer) seedlings were investigated, but not all plant-aphid combinations were used. Plant and root mean relative growth rates were significantly reduced within 10 days in the infested plants. Rates of total root respiration were was also significantly reduced in all infested plants within 10 days, presumably because of the reduced availability of translocate to the roots. The contribution of the cytochrome pathway to root respiration was significantly greater in control than in infested plants. The activity and engagement of the alternative respiratory pathway was also greater in control plants, and was absent in infested plants after 10 days infestation in all cases but one. These data indicate that the roots of aphid-infested plants were more efficient, in terms of energy conversion, than their respective controls.     

Contrasting soil respiration in young and old-growth ponderosa pine forests

Three years of fully automated and manual measurements of soil CO₂ efflux, soil moisture and temperature were used to explore the diel, seasonal and inter‐annual patterns of soil efflux in an old‐growth (250‐year‐old, O site) and recently regenerating (14‐year‐old, Y site) ponderosa pine forest in central Oregon. The data were used in conjunction with empirical models to determine which variables could be used to predict soil efflux in forests of contrasting ages and disturbance histories. Both stands experienced similar meteorological conditions with moderately cold wet winters and hot dry summers. Soil CO₂ efflux at both sites showed large inter‐annual variability that could be attributed to soil moisture availability in the deeper soil horizons (O site) and the quantity of summer rainfall (Y site). Seasonal patterns of soil CO₂ efflux at the O site showed a strong positive correlation between diel mean soil CO₂ efflux and soil temperature at 64 cm depth whereas diel mean soil efflux at the Y site declined before maximum soil temperature occurred during summer drought. The use of diel mean soil temperature and soil water potential inferred from predawn foliage water potential measurements could account for 80% of the variance of diel mean soil efflux across 3 years at both sites, however, the functional shape of the soil water potential constraint was site‐specific. Based on the similarity of the decomposition rates of litter and fine roots between sites, but greater productivity and amount of fine litter detritus available for decomposition at the O site, we would expect higher rates of soil CO₂ efflux at the O site. However, annual rates were only higher at the O site in one of the 3 years (597 ± 45 vs. 427 ± 80 g C m^?2). Seasonal patterns of soil efflux at both sites showed influences of soil water limitations that were also reflected in patterns of canopy stomatal conductance, suggesting strong linkages between above and below ground processes.     

Effects of post-fire conditions on soil respiration in boreal forests with special reference to Northeast China forests

Forest fires frequently occur in boreal forests, and their effects on forest ecosystems are often significant in terms of carbon flux related to climate changes. Soil respiration is the second largest carbon flux in boreal forests and the change in soil respiration is not negligible. Environmental factors controlling the soil respiration, for example, soil temperature, are altered by such fires. The abnormal increase in soil temperature has an important negative effect on soil microbes by reducing their activities or even by killing them directly with strong heat. On the other hand, although vegetation is directly disturbed by fires, the indirect changes in soil respiration are followed by changes in root activities and soil microbes. However, there is very limited information on soil respiration in the forests of Northeast China. This review, by combining what is known about fire influence on soil respiration in boreal forests from previous studies of post-fire effects on soil conditions, soil microbes, and forest regeneration, presents possible scenarios of the impact of anticipated post-fire changes in forest soil respiration in Northeast China.     

Effects of post-fire conditions on soil respiration in boreal forests with special reference to Northeast China forests

Forest fires frequently occur in boreal forests,and their effects on forest ecosystems are often significant in terms of carbon flux related to climate changes.Soil respiration is the second largest carbon flux in boreal forests and the change in soil respiration is not negligible.Environmental factors controlling the soil respiration,for example,soil temperature,are altered by such fires.The abnormal increase in soil temperature has an important negative effect on soil microbes by reducing their activities or even by killing them directly with strong heat.On the other hand,although vegetation is directly disturbed by fires,the indirect changes in soil respiration are followed by changes in root activities and soil microbes.However,there is very limited information on soil respiration in the forests of Northeast China.This review,by combining what is known about fire influence on soil respiration in boreal forests from previous studies of post-fire effects on soil conditions,soil microbes,and forest regeneration,presents possible scenarios of the impact of anticipated post-fire changes in forest soil respiration in Northeast China.     

Seasonal rhythms of seed rain and seedling emergence in two tropical rain forests in southern Brazil

Seasonal tropical forests show rhythms in reproductive activities due to water stress during dry seasons. If both seed dispersal and seed germination occur in the best environmental conditions, mortality will be minimised and forest regeneration will occur. To evaluate whether non-seasonal forests also show rhythms, for 2 years we studied the seed rain and seedling emergence in two sandy coastal forests (flooded and unflooded) in southern Brazil. In each forest, one 100 x 30-m grid was marked and inside it 30 stations comprising two seed traps (0.5 x 0.5 m each) and one plot (2 x 2 m) were established for monthly monitoring of seed rain and a seedling emergence study, respectively. Despite differences in soil moisture and incident light on the understorey, flooded and unflooded forests had similar dispersal and germination patterns. Seed rain was seasonal and bimodal (peaks at the end of the wetter season and in the less wet season) and seedling emergence was seasonal and unimodal (peaking in the wetter season). Approximately 57% of the total species number had seedling emergence 4 or more months after dispersal. Therefore, both seed dormancy and the timing of seed dispersal drive the rhythm of seedling emergence in these forests. The peak in germination occurs in the wetter season, when soil fertility is higher and other phenological events also occur. The strong seasonality in these plant communities, even in this weakly seasonal climate, suggests that factors such as daylength, plant sensitivity to small changes in the environment (e.g. water and nutrient availability) or phylogenetic constraints cause seasonal rhythms in the plants.     

Effects of soil water content on soil respiration in forests and cattle pastures of eastern Amazonia

The effect of soil water content on efflux of CO₂ from soils has been described by linear, logarithmic, quadratic, and parabolic functions of soil water expressed as matric potential, gravimetric and volumetric water content, water holding capacity, water-filled pore space, precipitation indices, and depth to water table. The effects of temperature and water content are often statistically confounded. The objectives of this study are: (1) to analyze seasonal variation in soil water content and soil respiration in the eastern Amazon Basin where seasonal temperature variation is minor; and (2) to examine differences in soil CO₂ emissions among primary forests, secondary forests, active cattle pastures, and degraded cattle pastures. Rates of soil respiration decreased from wet to dry seasons in all land uses. Grasses in the active cattle pasture were productive in the wet season and senescent in the dry season, resulting in the largest seasonal amplitude of CO₂ emissions, whereas deep-rooted forests maintained substantial soil respiration during the dry season. Annual emissions were 2.0, 1.8, 1.5, and 1.0 kg C m^-2 yr^-1 for primary forest, secondary forest, active pasture, and degraded pasture, respectively. Emissions of CO₂ were correlated with the logarithm of matric potential and with the cube of volumetric water content, which are mechanistically appropriate functions for relating soil respiration at below-optimal water contents. The parameterization of these empirical functions was not consistent with those for a temperate forest. Relating rates of soil respiration to water and temperature measurements made at some arbitrarily chosen depth of the surface horizons is simplistic. Further progress in defining temperature and moisture functions may require measurements of temperature, water content and CO₂ production for each soil horizon.     

Short-term effects of carbon dioxide on carnation callus cell respiration

The addition of potassium bicarbonate to the electrode cuvette immediately stimulated the rate of dark O₂ uptake of photomixotrophic and heterotrophic carnation (Dianthus caryophyllus L.) callus, of Elodea canadensis (Michx) leaves, and of other plant tissues. This phenomenon occurred at pH values lower than 7.2 to 7.8, and the stimulation depended on the concentration of gaseous CO₂ in the solution. These stimulatory responses lasted several minutes and then decreased, but additional bicarbonate or gaseous CO₂ again stimulated respiration, suggesting a reversible effect. Carbonic anhydrase in the solution increased the stimulatory effect of potassium bicarbonate. The CO₂/bicarbonate dependent stimulation of respiration did not occur in animal tissues such as rat diaphragm and isolated hepatocytes, and was inhibited by salicylhydroxamic acid in carnation callus cells and E. canadensis leaves. This suggested that the alternative oxidase was engaged during the stimulation in plant tissues. The cytochrome pathway was severely inhibited by CO₂/bicarbonate either in the absence or in the presence of the uncoupler carbonylcyanide m-chlorophenyl hydrazone. The activity of cytochrome c oxidase of callus tissue homogenates was also inhibited by CO₂/bicarbonate. The results suggested that high carbon dioxide levels (mainly free CO₂) partially inhibited the cytochrome pathway (apparently at the oxidase level), and this block in electron transport elicited a large transient engagement of the alternative oxidase when present uninhibited.