Common themes in mechanisms of gene silencing

The assembly of DNA into regions of inaccessible chromatin, called silent chromatin, is involved in the regulation of gene expression and maintenance of chromosome stability in eukaryotes. Recent studies on Sir2-containing silencing complexes in budding yeast and HP1- and Swi6-containing silencing complexes in metazoans and fission yeast suggest a common mechanism for the assembly of these domains, which involves the physical coupling of histone modifying enzymes to histone binding proteins.     

Effects of tethering HP1 to euchromatic regions of the Drosophila genome

Heterochromatin protein 1 (HP1) is a conserved non-histone chromosomal protein enriched in heterochromatin. On Drosophila polytene chromosomes, HP1 localizes to centric and telomeric regions, along the fourth chromosome, and to specific sites within euchromatin. HP1 associates with centric regions through an interaction with methylated lysine nine of histone H3, a modification generated by the histone methyltransferase SU(VAR)3-9. This association correlates with a closed chromatin configuration and silencing of euchromatic genes positioned near heterochromatin. To determine whether HP1 is sufficient to nucleate the formation of silent chromatin at non-centric locations, HP1 was tethered to sites within euchromatic regions of Drosophila chromosomes. At 25 out of 26 sites tested, tethered HP1 caused silencing of a nearby reporter gene. The site that did not support silencing was upstream of an active gene, suggesting that the local chromatin environment did not support the formation of silent chromatin. Silencing correlated with the formation of ectopic fibers between the site of tethered HP1 and other chromosomal sites, some containing HP1. The ability of HP1 to bring distant chromosomal sites into proximity with each other suggests a mechanism for chromatin packaging. Silencing was not dependent on SU(VAR)3-9 dosage, suggesting a bypass of the requirement for histone methylation.     

Net1, a Sir2-associated nucleolar protein required for rDNA silencing and nucleolar integrity

The Sir2 protein mediates gene silencing and repression of recombination at the rDNA repeats in budding yeast. Here we show that Sir2 executes these functions as a component of a nucleolar complex designated RENT (regulator of nucleolar silencing and telophase exit). Net1, a core subunit of this complex, preferentially cross-links to the rDNA repeats, but not to silent DNA regions near telomeres or to active genes, and tethers the RENT complex to rDNA. Net1 is furthermore required for rDNA silencing and nucleolar integrity. During interphase, Net1 and Sir2 colocalize to a subdomain within the nucleous, but at the end of mitosis a fraction of Sir2 leaves the nucleolus and disperses as foci throughout the nucleus, suggesting that the structure of rDNA silent chromatin changes during the cell cycle. Our findings suggest that a protein complex shown to regulate exit from mitosis is also involved in gene silencing.     

SIR–nucleosome interactions: Structure–function relationships in yeast silent chromatin

Discrete regions of the eukaryotic genome assume a heritable chromatin structure that is refractory to gene expression, referred to as heterochromatin or “silent” chromatin. Constitutively silent chromatin is found in subtelomeric domains in a number of species, ranging from yeast to man. In addition, chromatin-dependent repression of mating type loci occurs in both budding and fission yeasts, to enable sexual reproduction. The silencing of chromatin in budding yeast is characterized by an assembly of Silent Information Regulatory (SIR) proteins—Sir2, Sir3 and Sir4—with unmodified nucleosomes. Silencing requires the lysine deacetylase activity of Sir2, extensive contacts between Sir3 and the nucleosome, as well as interactions among the SIR proteins, to generate the Sir2–3–4 or SIR complex. Results from recent structural and reconstitution studies suggest an updated model for the ordered assembly and organization of SIR-dependent silent chromatin in yeast. Moreover, studies of subtelomeric gene expression reveal the importance of subtelomeric silent chromatin in the regulation of genes other than the silent mating type loci. This review covers recent advances in this field.     

Epigenetic regulatory elements associate with specific histone modifications to prevent silencing of telomeric genes

In eukaryotic cells, transgene expression levels may be limited by an unfavourable chromatin structure at the integration site. Epigenetic regulators are DNA sequences which may protect transgenes from such position effect. We evaluated different epigenetic regulators for their ability to protect transgene expression at telomeres, which are commonly associated to low or inconsistent expression because of their repressive chromatin environment. Although to variable extents, matrix attachment regions (MARs), ubiquitous chromatin opening element (UCOE) and the chicken cHS4 insulator acted as barrier elements, protecting a telomeric-distal transgene from silencing. MARs also increased the probability of silent gene reactivation in time-course experiments. Additionally, all MARs improved the level of expression in non-silenced cells, unlike other elements. MARs were associated to histone marks usually linked to actively expressed genes, especially acetylation of histone H3 and H4, suggesting that they may prevent the spread of silencing chromatin by imposing acetylation marks on nearby nucleosomes. Alternatively, an UCOE was found to act by preventing deposition of repressive chromatin marks. We conclude that epigenetic DNA elements used to enhance and stabilize transgene expression all have specific epigenetic signature that might be at the basis of their mode of action.     

Parental Imprinting in Drosophila

Genetic imprinting is a form of epigenetic silencing. But with a twist. The twist is that while imprinting results in the silencing of genes, chromosome regions or entire chromosome sets, this silencing occurs only after transmission of the imprinted region by one sex of parent. Thus genetic imprinting reflects intertwined levels of epigenetic and developmental modulation of gene expression. Imprinting has been well documented and studied in Drosophila, however, these studies have remained largely unknown due to nothing more significant than differences in terminology. Imprinting in Drosophilais invariably associated with heterochromatin or regions with unusual chromatin structure. The imprint appears to spread from imprinted centers that reside within heterochromatin and these are, seemingly, the only regions that are normally imprinted in Drosophila. This is significant as it implies that while imprinting occurs in Drosophila, it is generally without phenotypic consequence. Hence the evolution of imprinting, at least in Drosophila, is unlikely to be driven by the function of specific imprinted genes. Thus, the study of imprinting in Drosophilahas the potential to illuminate the mechanism and biological function of imprinting, and challenge models based solely on imprinting of mammalian genes. This revised version was published online in July 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.