A molecular biogeography of the New World cypresses (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Callitropsis</Emphasis>, <Emphasis Type="Italic">Hesperocyparis</Emphasis>; Cupressaceae)

Previous studies of phylogenetic relationships among cypresses have recovered separate Old and New World lineages, resolved a Southeast Asian species sister to the New World clade, and split the New World group into two principal lineages (i.e., the Macrocarpa and Arizonica clades) having fundamentally different geographic distributions. Collectively, these observations suggested a number of intriguing hypotheses regarding the origin and biogeographic history of the New World cypresses (NWC). In this study, we use DNA sequence data to examine the historical biogeography of NWC. Divergence times are estimated in BEAST using fossil-calibrated minimum age constraints, and a spatial history of the group reconstructed using Statistical Dispersal-Vicariance Analysis. Results presented here suggest ancestral NWC colonized the New World from Asia, perhaps by a more widespread trans-Beringian ancestor, in the late Cretaceous or early Cenozoic. Strong positive correlations between species age and geographic location (i.e., latitude and longitude) suggest current distributions were influenced by directional migration (northwest to southeast) as climates cooled and became increasingly arid in the latter half of the Cenozoic. Although our data support a middle Eocene (45 Mya) origin for NWC, nearly all species are apparently no more than late Miocene (6 Mya) in age, and net diversification rates in the group are among the highest reported to date for gymnosperms. Key coastal to interior migrations underlie the fundamentally different biogeographies of the Macrocarpa and Arizonica clades, with the Transverse Ranges of southern California being a barrier to north–south migration of certain species from these two lineages.     

A molecular phylogeny of the Old World cypresses (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Cupressus</Emphasis>: Cupressaceae): evidence from nuclear and chloroplast DNA sequences

Studies of phylogenetic relationships among cypresses of the Old World (Cupressus; Cupressaceae) have been plagued by unresolved relationships, poor branch support, and conflict between data sets and methods of analysis. In this study, we combined 5.4 kb of aligned DNA sequence and 157 binary characters with previously published data in examining phylogenetic relationships among Cupressus species. Bayesian and parsimony analysis of the combined data or of the nuclear data alone always recovered three principal clades of Cupressus; however, tests of phylogenetic incongruence could not distinguish between competing relationships among the three principal Cupressus lineages. In contrast, incongruence tests often found statistically significant conflict between the nuclear and plastid data, particularly with respect to the placement of C. chengiana. Consistent with previous studies and prevailing taxonomic opinion, we find C. darjeelingensis more closely related to cypresses of the New World (Hesperocyparis). In contrast, we placed accessions of C. assamica and C. tonkinensis, two putatively Old World species suggested to be misidentified New World taxa by some authors, within well-supported Old World clades. Statistical analysis of genetic distances suggests instances in which taxa recognized as distinct species by some authors are identical or nearly so and may best be considered a single taxon. Conversely, we identify instances in which infraspecific taxa are more distantly related to one another than those traditionally recognized as distinct species. Factors confounding cypress taxonomies, including poor morphological differentiation, misidentification, and the use of accessions of questionable provenance, are discussed.     

The systematics of right whales (Mysticeti: Balaenidae)

Balaenidae (right whales) are large, critically endangered baleen whales represented by four living species. The evolutionary relationships of balaenids are poorly known, with the number of genera, relationships to fossil taxa, and position within Mysticeti in contention. This study employs a comprehensive set of morphological characters to address aspects of balaenid phylogeny. A sister‐group relationship between neobalaenids and balaenids is strongly supported, although this conflicts with molecular evidence, which may be an artifact of long‐branch attraction (LBA). Monophyly of Balaenidae is supported, and three major clades are recognized: (1) extinct genus Balaenula, (2) extant and extinct species of the genus Eubalaena, and (3) extant and extinct species of the genus Balaena plus the extinct taxon, Balaenella. The relationships of these clades to one another, as well as to the early Miocene stem balaenid, Morenocetus parvus, remain unresolved. Pliocene taxa, Balaenula astensis and Balaenula balaenopsis, form a clade that is the sister group to the Japanese Pliocene Balaenula sp. Eubalaena glacialis and Pliocene Eubalaena belgica, are in an unresolved polytomy with a clade including E. japonica and E. australis. Extant and fossil species of Balaena form a monophyletic group that is sister group to the Dutch Pliocene Balaenella, although phylogenetic relationships within Balaena remain unresolved.     

Molecular evolution and SSRs analysis based on the chloroplast genome of Callitropsis funebris

Chloroplast genome sequences have been used to understand evolutionary events and to infer efficiently phylogenetic relationships. Callitropsis funebris (Cupressaceae) is an endemic species in China. Its phylogenetic position is controversial due to morphological characters similar to those of Cupressus, Callitropsis, and Chamaecyparis. This study used next‐generation sequencing technology to sequence the complete chloroplast genome of Ca. funebris and then constructed the phylogenetic relationship between Ca. funebris and its related species based on a variety of data sets and methods. Simple sequence repeats (SSRs) and adaptive evolution analysis were also conducted. Our results showed that the monophyletic branch consisting of Ca. funebris and Cupressus tonkinensis is a sister to Cupressus, while Callitropsis is not monophyletic; Ca. nootkatensis and Ca. vietnamensis are nested in turn at the base of the monophyletic group Hesperocyparis. The statistical results of SSRs supported the closest relationship between Ca. funebris and Cupressus. By performing adaptive evolution analysis under the phylogenetic background of Cupressales, the Branch model detected three genes and the Site model detected 10 genes under positive selection; and the Branch‐Site model uncovered that rpoA has experienced positive selection in the Ca. funebries branch. Molecular analysis from the chloroplast genome highly supported that Ca. funebris is at the base of Cupressus. Of note, SSR features were found to be able to shed some light on phylogenetic relationships. In short, this chloroplast genomic study has provided new insights into the phylogeny of Ca. funebris and revealed multiple chloroplast genes possibly undergoing adaptive evolution.     

Molecular Systematics of Threatened Seed Plant Species Endemic in the Caribbean Islands

A review of available Caribbean Island red-lists species (CR and EN categories based on the IUCN guidelines from 2001, and E category established according to the IUCN guidelines from 1980) is presented. A database of over 1,300 endemic species that are either Critically Endangered or Endangered sensu IUCN was created. There are molecular systematic studies available for 112 of them. Six of these species (in six genera) are the only members of early divergent lineages that are sister to groups composed of a large number of clades. Seven of the species (in seven genera) belong to clades that have a small number of taxa but are sister to species/genus-rich clades. Ten of the species (in six genera) are sister to taxa restricted to South America or nested in clades endemic to this region. Fifty-seven of the species (in 35 genera) are sister to Caribbean Island endemic species. Erigeron belliastroides, an Endangered (EN) Cuban endemic, is sister to the Galapagos genus Darwiniothamnus. The phylogenetic placement of four of the threatened species resulted in changes in their taxonomic placement; they belong to polyphyletic or paraphyletic genera.     

Systematics of North American Froelichia (Amaranthaceae subfam. Gomphrenoideae) II: Phylogeny and biogeographic speciation patterns inferred from nrITS sequence data

Molecular phylogenetic analyses of the nuclear ribosomal DNA internal transcribed spacer (ITS 1 and ITS 2) and the 5.8S gene were used to infer a phylogeny among the ten recognized taxa of Froelichia in North America. Analyses using both maximum parsimony (MP) and maximum-likelihood (ML) depicted a low level of sequence divergence though it was sufficient in most cases to differentiate taxa. Froelichia xantusii, a species restricted to southern Baja California was shown to be the basalmost member of the group subtending three clades. Two of the clades received good bootstrap support in the MP analysis and corresponded to a genetically homogeneous F. interrupta, and a clade comprising the two species F. latifolia and F. texana. A third clade receiving low bootstrap support contained F. floridana, F. gracilis, F. arizonica, and F. drummondii. Species diversity within the genus was centered within the Tamaulipan Brushland region of north-east Mexico and the southern portion of the US state of Texas where taxa from two of the three principal clades occurred, indicating a region of high speciation and diversification within the genus.     

Molecular phylogeny and biogeography of Honey‐buzzards (genera Pernis and Henicopernis)

A partial sequence of the cytb gene (382 bp) was amplified and sequenced from 35 individuals (mainly museum specimens) of the genus Pernis representing all valid taxa (10) and two taxa (P. p. gurneyi, P. p. japonicus) with questionable validity as well as representatives of the Old World Perninae, namely Henicopernis and Aviceda, to assess their relationships to the genus Pernis. Furthermore, Gypaetus barbatus, Neophron percnopterus, and Buteo buteo were included as outgroup taxa. In the trees derived from the sequence data, Aviceda represents the sister group of the genus Pernis. The genus Henicopernis and the Old World vultures Gypaetus andNeophron appear rather distantly related to Pernis. Within the genus Pernis, two of the described species (Pernis apivorus, Pernis ptilorhyncus) form monophyletic groups, whereas the relationships of the two clades representing three subspecies of Pernis celebensis are still uncertain. Although this study is based on comparatively short DNA‐sections, the trees deduced from these sequences can be considered as a first approach for inferring the phylogenetic relationships of the genus Pernis and related genera and for addressing questions concerning the evolutionary history, biogeography, and systematics of this group.     

Phylogenetic analysis of pelecaniformes (aves) based on osteological data: implications for waterbird phylogeny and fossil calibration studies

Background

Debate regarding the monophyly and relationships of the avian order Pelecaniformes represents a classic example of discord between morphological and molecular estimates of phylogeny. This lack of consensus hampers interpretation of the group''s fossil record, which has major implications for understanding patterns of character evolution (e.g., the evolution of wing-propelled diving) and temporal diversification (e.g., the origins of modern families). Relationships of the Pelecaniformes were inferred through parsimony analyses of an osteological dataset encompassing 59 taxa and 464 characters. The relationships of the Plotopteridae, an extinct family of wing-propelled divers, and several other fossil pelecaniforms (Limnofregata, Prophaethon, Lithoptila, ?Borvocarbo stoeffelensis) were also assessed. The antiquity of these taxa and their purported status as stem members of extant families makes them valuable for studies of higher-level avian diversification.

Methodology/Principal Findings

Pelecaniform monophyly is not recovered, with Phaethontidae recovered as distantly related to all other pelecaniforms, which are supported as a monophyletic Steganopodes. Some anatomical partitions of the dataset possess different phylogenetic signals, and partitioned analyses reveal that these discrepancies are localized outside of Steganopodes, and primarily due to a few labile taxa. The Plotopteridae are recovered as the sister taxon to Phalacrocoracoidea, and the relationships of other fossil pelecaniforms representing key calibration points are well supported, including Limnofregata (sister taxon to Fregatidae), Prophaethon and Lithoptila (successive sister taxa to Phaethontidae), and ?Borvocarbo stoeffelensis (sister taxon to Phalacrocoracidae). These relationships are invariant when ‘backbone’ constraints based on recent avian phylogenies are imposed.

Conclusions/Significance

Relationships of extant pelecaniforms inferred from morphology are more congruent with molecular phylogenies than previously assumed, though notable conflicts remain. The phylogenetic position of the Plotopteridae implies that wing-propelled diving evolved independently in plotopterids and penguins, representing a remarkable case of convergent evolution. Despite robust support for the placement of fossil taxa representing key calibration points, the successive outgroup relationships of several “stem fossil + crown family” clades are variable and poorly supported across recent studies of avian phylogeny. Thus, the impact these fossils have on inferred patterns of temporal diversification depends heavily on the resolution of deep nodes in avian phylogeny.     

The phylogenetic relationships and generic limits of finches (Fringillidae)

Phylogenetic relationships among the true finches (Fringillidae) have been confounded by the recurrence of similar plumage patterns and use of similar feeding niches. Using a dense taxon sampling and a combination of nuclear and mitochondrial sequences we reconstructed a well resolved and strongly supported phylogenetic hypothesis for this family. We identified three well supported, subfamily level clades: the Holoarctic genus Fringilla (subfamly Fringillinae), the Neotropical Euphonia and Chlorophonia (subfamily Euphoniinae), and the more widespread subfamily Carduelinae for the remaining taxa. Although usually separated in a different family-group taxon (Drepanidinae), the Hawaiian honeycreepers are deeply nested within the Carduelinae and sister to a group of Asian Carpodacus. Other new relationships recovered by this analysis include the placement of the extinct Chaunoproctus ferreorostris as sister to some Asian Carpodacus, a clade combining greenfinches (Carduelis chloris and allies), Rhodospiza and Rhynchostruthus, and a well-supported clade with the aberrant Callacanthis and Pyrrhoplectes together with Carpodacus rubescens. Although part of the large Carduelis-Serinus complex, the poorly known Serinus estherae forms a distinct lineage without close relatives. The traditionally delimited genera Carduelis, Serinus, Carpodacus, Pinicola and Euphonia are polyphyletic or paraphyletic. Based on our results we propose a revised generic classification of finches and describe a new monotypic genus for Carpodacus rubescens.     

Phylogenetic relationships among Myrceugenia, Blepharocalyx, and Luma (Myrtaceae) based on paired-sites models and the secondary structures of ITS and ETS sequences

To establish relationships among the genera Blepharocalyx, Luma, and Myrceugenia, the phylogeny of tribe Myrteae was reconstructed based on secondary structures of the sequences of ITS (ITS1-5.8S-ITS2) and ETS regions from 93 taxa belonging to 29 genera. The DNA sequences were aligned according to their secondary structure and analysed with Bayesian inference (BI) using base substitution models for RNA, which can differentiate between the regions consisting of base pairs (helices) and unpaired bases (loops). The best-fit models were RNA7C for ITS and RNA7B for ETS, which differ in how they predict double substitutions and symmetry of the frequency of base pairs. The phylogenetic hypothesis was compared with results obtained using classical 4-state models, the results of maximum parsimony, and using sequence alignment without considering the secondary structure. Analyses show low support along the backbone of the consensus trees, those using substitution models of paired sites showing more highly supported derived clades than substitution models of independent sites. All tests were consistent and differed in the positioning of certain groups, but they also showed that Blepharocalyx, Luma, and Myrceugenia arise from three independent lineages that are not closely related. The substitution model for RNA shows that Luma is a monophyletic group and sister to the other genera of Myrteae, except for Myrtus communis. Myrceugenia appears as a monophyletic group, except for M. fernandeziana, which is related to Blepharocalyx, a genus that appears to be biphyletic.     

Molecular phylogenetics of Ruscaceae sensu lato and related families (Asparagales) based on plastid and nuclear DNA sequences

Background

Previous phylogenetics studies of Asparagales, although extensive and generally well supported, have left several sets of taxa unclearly placed and have not addressed all relationships within certain clades thoroughly (some clades were relatively sparsely sampled). One of the most important of these is sampling within and placement of Nolinoideae (Ruscaceae s.l.) of Asparagaceae sensu Angiosperm Phylogeny Group (APG) III, which subfamily includes taxa previously referred to Convallariaceae, Dracaenaaceae, Eriospermaceae, Nolinaceae and Ruscaceae.

Methods

A phylogenetic analysis of a combined data set for 126 taxa of Ruscaceae s.l. and related groups in Asparagales based on three nuclear and plastid DNA coding genes, 18S rDNA (1796 bp), rbcL (1338 bp) and matK (1668 bp), representing a total of approx. 4·8 kb is presented. Parsimony and Bayesian inference analyses were conducted to elucidate relationships of Ruscaceae s.l. and related groups, and parsimony bootstrap analysis was performed to assess support of clades.

Key Results

The combination of the three genes results in the most highly resolved and strongly supported topology yet obtained for Asparagales including Ruscaceae s.l. Asparagales relationships are nearly congruent with previous combined gene analyses, which were reflected in the APG III classification. Parsimony and Bayesian analyses yield identical relationships except for some slight variation among the core asparagoid families, which nevertheless form a strongly supported group in both types of analyses. In core asparagoids, five major clades are identified: (1) Alliaceae s.l. (sensu APG III, Amarylidaceae–Agapanthaceae–Alliaceae); (2) Asparagaceae–Laxmanniaceae–Ruscaceae s.l.; (3) Themidaceae; (4) Hyacinthaceae; (5) Anemarrhenaceae–Behniaceae–Herreriaceae–Agavaceae (clades 2–5 collectively Asparagaceae s.l. sensu APG III). The position of Aphyllanthes is labile, but it is sister to Themidaceae in the combined maximum-parsimony tree and sister to Anemarrhenaceae in the Bayesian analysis. The highly supported clade of Xanthorrhoeaceae s.l. (sensu APG III, including Asphodelaceae and Hemerocallidaceae) is sister to the core asparagoids. Ruscaceae s.l. are a well-supported group. Asparagaceae s.s. are sister to Ruscaceae s.l., even though the clade of the two families is weakly supported; Laxmanniaceae are strongly supported as sister to Ruscaceae s.l. and Asparagaceae. Ruscaceae s.l. include six principal clades that often reflect previously named groups: (1) tribe Polygonateae (excluding Disporopsis); (2) tribe Ophiopogoneae; (3) tribe Convallarieae (excluding Theropogon); (4) Ruscaceae s.s. + Dracaenaceae + Theropogon + Disporopsis + Comospermum; (5) Nolinaceae, (6) Eriospermum.

Conclusions

The analyses here were largely conducted with new data collected for the same loci as in previous studies, but in this case from different species/DNA accessions and greater sampling in many cases than in previously published analyses; nonetheless, the results largely mirror those of previously conducted studies. This demonstrates the robustness of these results and answers questions often raised about reproducibility of DNA results, given the often sparse sampling of taxa in some studies, particularly the earliest ones. The results also provide a clear set of patterns on which to base a new classification of the subfamilies of Asparagaceae s.l., particularly Ruscaceae s.l. (= Nolinoideae of Asparagaceae s.l.), and examine other putatively important characters of Asparagales.     

Phylogeny of Cyperaceae Based on DNA Sequence Data: Current Progress and Future Prospects

In the last decade, efforts to reconstruct suprageneric phylogeny of the Cyperaceae have intensified. We present an analysis of 262 taxa representing 93 genera in 15 tribes, sequenced for the plastid rbcL and trnL-F (intron and intergenic spacer). Cyperaceae are monophyletic and resolved into two clades, here recognised as Mapanioideae and Cyperoideae, and the overall topology is similar to results from previous studies. Within Cyperoideae, Trilepideae are sister to rest of taxa whereas Cryptangieae, Bisboeckelerieae and Sclerieae are resolved within Schoeneae. Cladium and Rhynchospora (and Pleurostachys) are resolved into clades sister to the rest of Schoeneae, lending support to the recognition of these taxa in separate tribes. However, we retain these taxa in Schoeneae pending broader sampling of the group. The phylogenetic position of 40 species in 21 genera is presented in this study for the first time, elucidating their position in Abildgaardieae (Trachystylis), Cryptangieae (Didymiandrum, Exochogyne), Cypereae (Androtrichum, Volkiella), Eleocharideae (Chillania), and Schoeneae (Calyptrocarya, Morelotia). More sampling effort (more taxa and the use of more rapidly evolving markers) is needed to resolve relationships in Fuireneae and Schoeneae.     

Phylogenetic analysis of the Malvadendrina clade (Malvaceae s.l.) based on plastid DNA sequences

Phylogenetic relationships within Malvaceae s.l., a clade that includes the traditional families Bombacaceae, Malvaceae s.str., Sterculiaceae, and Tiliaceae, have become greatly clarified thanks to recent molecular systematic research. In this paper, we use DNA sequences of four plastid regions (atpB, matK, ndhF, and rbcL) to study relationships within Malvadendrina, one of the two major clades of Malvaceae s.l. The four data sets were generally in agreement, but five terminal taxa manifested highly unexpected affinities in the rbcL partition, and the non-coding sequences of the trnK intron were found to provide limited phylogenetic information for resolving relationships at the base of Malvadendrina. The remaining data strongly support the existence of six major clades within Malvadendrina: Brownlowioideae, Dombeyoideae, Helicteroideae, Malvatheca (comprising Bombacoideae and Malvoideae), Sterculioideae, and Tilioideae. These data also resolve the placement of two problematic taxa: Nesogordonia (in Dombeyoideae) and Mortoniodendron (in Tilioideae). The relationships among the six clades are not definitively resolved, but the best-supported topology has Dombeyoideae as sister to the remainder of Malvadendrina (posterior probability PP=80%) and Sterculioideae as sister to Malvatheca (PP=86%). This early branching position of Dombeyoideae is supported by similarities in floral characters between members of that clade and outgroup taxa in Byttnerioideae. Similarly, the sister-group relationship of Sterculioideae and Malvatheca receives support from androecial characteristics, like subsessile or sessile anthers and an absence of staminodes, shared by these two clades.     

Phylogenetic relationships of epacrids and vaccinioids (Ericaceae s. l.) based onmatK sequence data

Cladistic relationships of epacrids and vaccinioids (Ericaceae) are investigated using nucleotide sequence data from the chloroplast encodedmatK gene. Sequences of 56 taxa were aligned and analyzed using parsimony methods. Results show thatVaccinioideae as currently recognized are not monophyletic. The epacrids are sister to a clade that includes theLyonia group, theGaultheria group, and theVaccinieae. Arbutus andPyrola branch early inEricaceae, before the rhododendroid group.Enkianthus is sister to the remainingEricaceae (includingEpacridaceae).Vaccinieae are strongly supported as monophyletic, butVaccinium andAgapetes are polyphyletic.     

Transatlantic disjunction in fleshy fungi. I. The Sparassis crispa complex

Phylogenies based on ITS and LSU sequences show that the Sparassis crispa complex comprises several monophyletic clades, in some cases co\rresponding to named taxa (i.e. S. crispa, S. radicata), but others lacking names (i.e. eastern and southwestern North American S. “crispa”). In our study, morphological examination of numerous collections also distinguished subtle differences correlated with geographic distribution. Underlying these problems, several taxa lacked type specimens for taxonomic analysis. In this paper, appropriate epitypes are designated and names assigned. Extensive sexual compatibility experiments, described within, indicate that monokaryon, haploid isolates of collections from North America and Europe are consistently sexually compatible to some degree. Inherent in the study, different “species concepts” were tested, with the “biological species concept,” based on sexual compatibility, being the least restrictive. We propose two new taxa, S. americana and S. americana f. arizonica.     

Phylogeny and classification of Ranunculales: Evidence from four molecular loci and morphological data

Previous phylogenetic analyses of Ranunculales, which have mostly been focused on an individual family and were based on molecular data alone, have recovered three main clades within the order. However, support for relationships among these three clades was weak. Earlier hypotheses were often hampered by limited taxon sampling; to date less than one-tenth of the genera in the order have been sampled. In this study, we used a greatly enlarged taxon sampling (105 species, representing 99 genera of all seven families in the order). Our study is, furthermore, the first to employ morphology (65 characters) in combination with sequence data from four genomic regions, including plastid rbcL, matK and trnL-F, and nuclear ribosomal 26S rDNA to reconstruct phylogenetic relationships within Ranunculales. Maximum parsimony and Bayesian inference were performed on the individual and combined data sets. Our analyses concur with those of previous studies, but in most cases provide stronger support and better resolution for relationships among the three main clades retrieved. The first, comprised solely of the monogeneric family Eupteleaceae, is the earliest-diverging lineage. The second clade is composed exclusively of taxa of Papaveraceae, which is sister to the third clade, the core Ranunculales, comprising the other five families of the order. Circaeasteraceae and Lardizabalaceae form a strongly supported clade. Pteridophyllum is supported as sister to Hypecoum, contradicting the viewpoint that the former is the earliest-diverging genus in Papaveraceae. Glaucidium is basalmost in Ranunculaceae. Within this phylogenetic framework, the evolution of selected characters is inferred and diagnostic morphological characters at different taxonomic levels are identified and discussed. Based on both morphological and molecular evidence, a classification outline for Ranunculales is presented, including the proposal of two new subfamilies, Menispermoideae and Tinosporoideae in Menispermaceae and a new tribe, Callianthemeae, for the genus Callianthemum (Ranunculaceae).     

Phylogeny of the dragonfly genus Sympetrum (Odonata: Libellulidae)

The libellulid dragonfly genus Sympetrum has been recognized since 1833, but lacks any morphological synapomorphies to unite the taxon. Previous researchers have disagreed over which species belong in Sympetrum, bringing the monophyly of the genus into question. We use DNA sequence data from 6 genetic loci (16S, tRNA-valine, 12S, elongation factor 1 alpha, cytochrome oxidase subunit I, and the second internal transcribed spacer region) and 25 morphological characters (mainly genitalic) to test the monophyly of Sympetrum with Bayesian inference and maximum likelihood analyses. Under Bayesian inference, all Sympetrum species included in this study form a clade, which also contains the Hawaiian monotypic genus Nesogonia, often considered a close relative of Sympetrum. Phylogenetic analyses also reveal at least six strongly supported clades (treated as species groups) within Sympetrum, but relationships between these species groups remain unresolved or unsupported. Although the relationships between Sympetrum species groups remain unresolved, several species groups include taxa from multiple biogeographic regions/continents, and the species group sister to the rest of Sympetrum contains migratory species from the New World and Africa. This pattern suggests a complex biogeographic history in Sympetrum shaped by vicariance and dispersal. Preliminary estimates of the divergence dates of Sympetrum species groups outline a rapid radiation of the groups approximately 32-38 million years ago, possibly influenced by cooling and drying climates of the late Eocene and early Oligocene.     

The deep divergences of neornithine birds: a phylogenetic analysis of morphological characters

Consensus is elusive regarding the phylogenetic relationships among neornithine (crown clade) birds. The ongoing debate over their deep divergences is despite recent increases in available molecular sequence data and the publication of several larger morphological data sets. In the present study, the phylogenetic relationships among 43 neornithine higher taxa are addressed using a data set of 148 osteological and soft tissue characters, which is one of the largest to date. The Mesozoic non‐neornithine birds Apsaravis, Hesperornis, and Ichthyornis are used as outgroup taxa for this analysis. Thus, for the first time, a broad array of morphological characters (including both cranial and postcranial characters) are analyzed for an ingroup densely sampling Neornithes, with crown clade outgroups used to polarize these characters. The strict consensus cladogram of two most parsimonious trees resultant from 1000 replicate heuristic searches (random stepwise addition, tree‐bisection‐reconnection) recovered several previously identified clades; the at‐one‐time contentious clades Galloanseres (waterfowl, fowl, and allies) and Palaeognathae were supported. Most notably, our analysis recovered monophyly of Neoaves, i.e., all neognathous birds to the exclusion of the Galloanseres, although this clade was weakly supported. The recently proposed sister taxon relationship between Steatornithidae (oilbird) and Trogonidae (trogons) was recovered. The traditional taxon “Falconiformes” (Cathartidae, Sagittariidae, Accipitridae, and Falconidae) was not found to be monophyletic, as Strigiformes (owls) are placed as the sister taxon of (Falconidae + Accipitridae). Monophyly of the traditional “Gruiformes” (cranes and allies) and ”Ciconiiformes” (storks and allies) was also not recovered. The primary analysis resulted in support for a sister group relationship between Gaviidae (loons) and Podicipedidae (grebes)—foot‐propelled diving birds that share many features of the pelvis and hind limb. Exclusion of Gaviidae and reanalysis of the data set, however, recovered the sister group relationship between Phoenicopteridae (flamingos) and grebes recently proposed from molecular sequence data.