Promotive effect of chrysanthemic acids on adventitious root formation in some plants

Adventitious root formation in excised cucumber (Cucumis sativus L.) cotyledons was significantly promoted by (±)-cis-chrysanthemic acid at 0.006–1.8 mM. The effect of (±)-cis-chrysanthemic acid on indole-3-acetic acid (IAA)-induced rooting was additive. Rooting in excised cucumber cotyledons was significantly promoted by several isomers of chrysanthemic acid and sodium (±)-cis-chrysanthemate at 0.18 mM. Rooting in mung bean (Phaseolus radiatus L.) hypocotyls was also stimulated by the sodium salt at 0.06–0.6 mM. Rooting of kidney bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) hypocotyls was also clearly enhanced by sodium (±)-cis-chrysanthemate at 0.18–6 mM.     

Studies on Chrysanthemic Acid

Synthesis of (±)-trans-chrysanthemic acid from (±)-1′-hydroxydihydro-trans-chrysanthemic acid by the dehydration with p-toluene-sulfonic acid was attempted. However, the attempt was found to be unsuccessful giving a compound believed to be methyl methyl 2,6 dimethylhepta-3.6-diene-5-carboxylate upon dehydration.

A cleavage upon cyclopropane ring was confirmed by deriving the acid obtained by the hydrolysis of the above ester to already known 2,6-dimethyl-heptane-5-carboxylic acid.

Analogous mode of dehydration and cleavage upon the ester of (±)-2,2-dimethyl-3-trans-hydroxylbenzyl-cyclopropane-l-carboxylic acid was also observed to give 1-phenyl-4-methyl-penta-1,3-diene-3-carboxylic acid. On the other hand, (±)-trans-caronic acid being derived to (±)-1′-oxo-2′-hydroxy-dihydro-trans-chrysanthemic acid, the synthesis of (±)-trans-chrysanthemic acid from (±)-trans-caronic acid became possible using (±)-1′-oxo-2′-hydroxy-dihydro-trans-chrysanthemic acid as a relay substance.     

The Biosynthesis of delta-Aminolevulinic Acid in Higher Plants: I. Accumulation of delta-Aminolevulinic Acid in Greening Plant Tissues

δ-Aminolevulinic acid dehydrase activity in cucumber (Cucumis sativus L. var. Alpha green) cotyledons did not change as the tissue was allowed to green for 24 hours. δ-Aminolevulinic acid accumulated in greening cucumber cotyledons, and barley (Hordeum sativum L. var. Numar) and bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L. var. Red Kidney) leaves incubated in the presence of levulinic acid, a specific competitive inhibitor of δ-aminolevulinic acid dehydrase. The rate of δ-aminolevulinic acid accumulation in levulinic acid-treated cucumber cotyledons paralleled the rate of chlorophyll accumulation in the controls, and the quantity of δ-aminolevulinic acid accumulated compensated for the decrease in chlorophyll accumulation. When levulinic acid-treated cucumber cotyledons were returned to darkness, δ-aminolevulinic acid accumulation ceased.     

Pressure-Driven Extrusion of Intracellular Substances from Bean and Pea Cotyledons during Imbibition

Intracellular substances leak from imbibing cotyledons of grain legumes during imbibition. This work reports the discovery of a biophysical process by which intracellular substances are driven from cotyledons during imbibition. Light and scanning electron microscopy were used to examine bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) and pea (Pisum sativum L.) cotyledons and the material released from them into imbibition water. A large fraction of the visible materials released from excised bean and pea cotyledons during the first 30 minutes of imbibition consisted of convoluted or helical streams of material which rapidly emerged from the cotyledons surfaces. Large streams of material from bean cotyledons contained starch grains and protein bodies, and smaller streams from bean and pea cotyledons probably contained protein bodies. The forms of streams were characteristic of a viscous fluid which had been forced by pressure through irregular orifices. The sites of extrusion from bean cotyledons were multicellular blisters which formed on the surfaces of imbibing cotyledons. In 6 hours, pea and bean cotyledons leaked from 1 to 11 micrograms protein per milligram of seed dry weight. The quantities of protein leaked primarily depended on cultivar.     

Life history of western flower thrips, Frankliniella occidentalis (Thysan., Thripae), on five different vegetable leaves

Biological characteristics of western flower thrips, Frankliniella occidentalis (Pergande) (Thysan., Thripae), were investigated on excised leaves of five vegetables: cabbage (Brassica oleracea L. var. Jingfeng 1), cucumber (Cucumis sativus L. var. Zhongnong 8), capsicum (Capsicum annuum L. var. Zhongjiao 5), kidney bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L. var. Gonggeizhe) and tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum M. var. zhongza 9). The developmental time from egg to adult on the cucumber, cabbage, bean, capsicum and tomato leaf was 9.22 ± 0.13, 10.19 ± 0.08, 10.42 ± 0.06, 12.15 ± 0.07 and 12.91 ± 0.04 days, respectively. Survivorship of immatures on cucumber, cabbage and tomato was high (75–80%) but low on capsicum (50%). The total number of first instars produced was highest on cabbage (76.62 ± 11.79), while the daily first instar production was highest on cucumber (6.12 ± 1.81), whereas the total and daily first instar production rates were lowest on capsicum (7.67 ± 3.35 and 1.89 ± 0.91). F. occidentalis had the highest intrinsic rate of increase (r_m) on cucumber (0.208), followed by cabbage (0.184), bean (0.164), tomato (0.100) and capsicum (0.017). The results indicate that cucumber was the most suitable host plant for F. occidentalis, whereas capsicum was the least suitable.     

Modulation of Chlorophyll, Carotene and Xanthophyll Formation by Penicillin, Benzyladenine and Embryonic Axis in Mung Bean (Phaseolus aureus L.) Cotyledons

Penicillin stimulated the synthesis of pigments in the cotyledonsof intact embryos and excised cotyledons of mung bean (Phaseolusaureus L.) and enhanced benzyladenine-induced accumulation ofchloroplast pigments. The presence of the embryonic axis duringlight exposure proved to be beneficial for chlorophyll synthesisby the cotyledons whereas its presence in dark germination producedan adverse effect. The possible involvement of nucleic acidand protein synthesis in light-regulated chlorophyll formationis suggested. The stimulating effect on pigment synthesis providedby penicillin in this system seems to involve a maintenanceof nucleic acid and protein synthesis. Phaseolus aureus L., mung bean, pigment synthesis, cotyledons     

Studies on Chrysanthemic Acid

(±) -trans-2,2-Dimethyl-3- (2′-methyl-2′-propenyl) cyclopropan-l-carboxylic acid (VII) was obtained by the treatment of (±) -pyrocin (IV) with thionyl chloride and absolute ethanol saturated with dry hydrogen chloride followed by the cyclization action of sodium tert-amylate in dry benzene and alkaline hydrolysis. This was converted into (±) -trans-chrysanthemic acid (VIII) by the catalytic action of p-toluenesulfonic acid.     

myo-Inositol Synthesis from [1-H]Glucose in Phaseolus vulgaris L. during Early Stages of Germination

Radiolabeled d-[1-³H]glucose was fed by imbibition under sterile conditions to bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) seeds. After 72 and 96 hours of feeding, the ³H was located in uronic acid and pentose residues as well as hexose residues of cell wall polysaccharides in growing hypocotyl and root. Free myo-inositol present in cotyledons, hypocotyl, and root also contained ³H, showing that de novo synthesis of myo-inositol from [1-³H]glucose did occur during the first 72 hours of germination. More than 90% of the labeled, free myo-inositol was present in the cotyledons. The ³H percentage in trifluoroacetic acid-soluble arabinose residues of cell wall polysaccharides from 72-hour-old bean hypocotyls was only half of their mole percentage. On the other hand, ³H percentages in hexose residues were higher than their mole percentages. The results suggest that myo-inositol is synthesized from reserve sugars during the very early stages of germination, and that the newly synthesized myo-inositol, as well as that stored in cotyledons, can be used for the construction of new hypocotyl and root cell wall polysaccharides after conversion into uronic acids and pentoses via the myo-inositol oxidation pathway.     

Metabolism of abscisic acid and the occurrence of epi-dihydrophaseic acid in Phaseolus vulgaris

When (±)-abscisic acid-[2-¹⁴C] or (±)-abscisic acid-[4′-¹⁸O] was fed to bean (Phaseolus vulgaris) shoots, phaseic acid (PA) and dihydrophaseic acid (DPA) were the major metabolites, while epi-dihydrophaseic acid (epi-DPA) appeared as a minor metabolite. In the acidic fraction the amount of epi-DPA ranged from 18 to 42% of the DPA content, in the conjugated form from 50 to 200%. The content of endogenous epi-DPA amounted to only 1–2% of that of the DPA. These data indicate that the applied abscisic acid is not metabolised in a manner identical with that of the endogenous material. DPA and epi-DPA were shown to be formed separately from PA and could not be inter-converted either by the extraction conditions employed or when fed to bean shoots during short term experiments.     

The Biosynthesis of delta-Aminolevulinic Acid in Higher Plants: II. Formation of C-delta-Aminolevulinic Acid from Labeled Precursors in Greening Plant Tissues

δ-Aminolevulinic acid was accumulated by greening cucumber (Cucumis sativus L. var. Alpha green) cotyledons, barley (Hordeum sativum var. Numar) leaves, and bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L. var. Red Kidney) leaves in the presence of various ¹⁴C-labeled precursors and levulinic acid, a competitive inhibitor of δ-aminolevulinic acid dehydrase. The radioactivity in the accumulated δ-aminolevulinic acid was measured.     

Polar transport of kinetin in tissues of radish

Polar transport of kinetin-8-¹⁴C occurred in segments of petioles, hypocotyls, and roots of radish (Raphanus sativus L.). The polarity was basipetal in petioles and hypocotyls and acropetal in roots. In segments excised from seedlings with fully expanded cotyledons, indole-3-acetic acid was required for polarity to develop. In hypocotyl segments isolated at this stage, basipetal and acropetal movements were equal during the first 12 hours of auxin treatment after which time acropetal movement declined. Pretreatment with auxin eliminated this delay in the appearance of polarity. In hypocotyl segments excised from seedlings with expanding cotyledons, exogenous auxin was unnecessary for polarity. Potassium cyanide abolished polarity at both stages of growth by allowing increased acropetal movement. The rate of accumulation of kinetin in receiver blocks was greater than the in vivo increase in cytokinin content of developing radish roots.     

Somatic embryogenesis and plant regeneration from cotyledons of walnut,Juglans regia L.

Immature cotyledons of open-pollinated seeds from five walnut (Juglans regia L.) cultivars were excised from fruits at 6–11 weeks after full pistillate bloom and grown on a sequence of media to induce somatic embryogenesis. Globular, heart, cotyledonary and complete somatic embryos were obtained. Embryogenic cultures were maintained for more than a year by repetitive embryogenesis in which the roots, cotyledons and hypocotyls of somatic embryos formed additional adventive somatic embryos. Mature somatic embryos required a cold treatment of 8–10 weeks at 2–4°C to overcome apical dormancy. Selected plantlets derived from these somatic embryos were grown to young plants in soil. In addition, somatic embryogenesis was induced in J. hindsii (Jeps.), Jeps., and in Pterocarya sp., another member of the Juglandaceae.     

Some Morphogenic Differences between Monoecious and Gynoecious Cucumber Seedlings as Related to Ethylene Production

Exposure of gibberellic acid-treated seedlings of a monoecious cucumber cultivar `Chipper' (Cucumis sativus L.) to ethylene caused thickening of the hypocotyl, inhibited longitudinal growth, and had no effect on fresh weight. Downward curvature of cotyledons was increased by the presence of ethylene. A gynoecious breeding line, `Gy 3,' had thicker hypocotyls and displayed its cotyledons in a more downward position than `Chipper'. Excised hypocotyls of the gynoecious seedlings produced three times as much ethylene as did the monoecious Chipper hypocotyls. Thus, ethylene may play a role in the regulation of cucumber seedling morphology.     

UDP-GlcNAc:Glycoprotein GlcNAc-Transferase is Located in the Golgi Apparatus of Developing Bean Cotyledons

The transport and accumulation of phytohemagglutinin in developing bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) cotyledons is accompanied by the transient presence of N-acetylglucosamine (GlcNAc) residues on the oligosaccharide sidechains of this glycoprotein. These peripheral GlcNAc residues can be distinguished from those in the chitobiose portion of the oligosaccharide sidechains by their sensitivity to removal by the exoglycosidase β-N-acetylglucosaminidase. GlcNAc residues sensitive to removal by β-N-acetylglucosaminidase are present not only on phytohemagglutinin, but also on other newly synthesized proteins. The enzyme UDPGlcNAc:glycoprotein GlcNAc-transferase which transfers GlcNAc residues to glycoproteins was first described by Davies and Delmer (Plant Physiol 1981 68: 284-291). The data presented here show that this enzyme is associated with the Golgi complex of developing cotyledons.     

Epoxyoctadecadienoic acids from Crepis conyzaefolia seed oil

The seed oil of Crepis conyzaefolia (Gouan) Dalle Torre contains previously unidentified (±)-cis-12,13-epoxyoctadeca-trans-6-cis-9-dienoic (14%) and cis-12,13-epoxyoctadeca-cis-6-cis-9-dienoic (2%) acids and the more common vernolic [(±)-12,13-epoxyoctadec-cis-9-enoic] (32%) acid.     

Two effects of combined nitrogen on the adhesion of Rhizobium etli to bean roots

Combined forms of nitrogen negatively influence rhizobia-legume symbiosis. The effects of combined nitrogen are known for nodulation and dinitrogen (N₂) fixation, but little is known about the effect on preinfection events. Here, we studied the effects of combined nitrogen on the adhesion of Rhizobium etli to common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) roots. When potassium nitrate (KNO₃) or sodium glutamate was added to an incubation mixture of rhizobia and plants that were previously grown in nitrogen-free solution, rhizobial adhesion to roots was stimulated. However, the rhizobial adhesion to bean roots that were previously grown with 10 mM KNO₃ was reduced by half. A fraction of the bean root exudates, which is thermolabile and has molecular mass larger than 12 kDa stimulated rhizobial adhesion, but this stimulatory activity was lost in root exudates obtained with 10 mM KNO₃. Thus, the inhibition of symbiosis in response to combined nitrogen may be controlled by the plant at the preinfection stage as well.     

Diverse regulation by sucrose of enzymes involved in storage lipid breakdown in germinating lupin seeds

The regulatory function of sucrose in the activity of lipid-degrading enzymes was investigated in germinating seeds of yellow lupin (Lupinus luteus L.), white lupin (Lupinus albus L.) and Andean lupin (Lupinus mutabilis Sweet). The study was conducted on isolated embryo axes, excised cotyledons and seedlings cultured in vitro for 96 h on medium with 60 mM sucrose or without the sugar. The activity of lipase (lipolysis), acyl-CoA oxidase and catalase (fatty acid β-oxidation) was enhanced in all studied organs cultured on medium without sucrose. The activity of cytosolic aconitase (glyoxylate cycle) was stimulated by sucrose in seedling axes and isolated embryo axes, whereas in seedling cotyledons and excised cotyledons, it was inhibited. The regulatory function of sucrose in phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase (gluconeogenesis) was observed only in isolated embryo axes and the activity was lower in carbohydrate deficiency conditions. The peculiar features of storage lipid breakdown in germinating lupin seeds and its regulation by sucrose are discussed.     

Studies on Chrysanthemic Acid

Pure (±) and (+)-trans-pyrethric acids, which are acidic components of rethrin II, were first synthesized respectively from (±) and (+)-trans-chrysanthemic acids.     

Factors involved in the opening of the hypocotyl hook of cotton and beans

Conditions influencing the opening of the bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) and cotton (Gossypium hirsutum L.) hypocotyl hook were defined. Such hooks were shown to undergo geotropic curvature; orientation of the hook with respect to gravity greatly affected the observed opening. Cotton and bean hooks behaved exactly opposite in regard to the presence of the cotyledons and apical bud. The cotton hook required the cotyledons for opening, but the corresponding tissue slowed or inhibited opening of the bean hook. With cotton, lower hypocotyl and root tissues stimulated hook opening, but with bean, the tissues below the hook section had little effect. Kinetin and gibberellic acid both modified hook opening in light and dark; the former was inhibitory and the latter was stimulatory. Indoleacetic acid, at concentrations above 10⁻⁵ M, caused pronounced hook closing in red light but not in the dark. These effects were generally the same with both plants. In opening of the cotton hook, the cotyledons were not necessary as a light receptor tissue. None of the growth substances tested were able to substitute completely for the cotton cotyledon. Coumarin was a pronounced inhibitor of opening of the cotton hook, and this response was expressed to such a degree as to cause hook closure with bean tissue. Reduced oxygen levels inhibited hook opening in bean. Oxygen was required in processes subsequent to the light reaction, but not for the photochemical process.     

Effect of chlorsulfuron on ethylene evolution from sunflower seedlings

The effect of the herbicide chlorsulfuron (2-chloro-N-[(4-methoxy - 6 - methyl -1, 3,5 - triazin - 2 - yl)aminocarbonyl]benzenesulfonamide) on ethylene production in light-grown sunflower (Helianthus annuus L.) seedlings was examined. Application of chlorsulfuron to the apex stimulated ethylene production in all tissues examined: cotyledons, hypocotyls, and roots. The greatest stimulation occurred in the upper portion of the hypocotyl adjacent to, and including, the cotyledonary node. Ethylene evolution from hypocotyls excised from treated seedlings was stimulated over control levels 1 day after herbicide application and reached a maximum (approx. 75 x control or 17 nl/g f wt/h) 2 to 3 days after treatment. Labeling and inhibitor studies indicated that the ethylene produced was derived primarily from methionine. Chlorsulfuron treatment stimulated the rate of accumulation of the ethylene precursor, 1-aminocyclopropane-1-carboxylic acid (ACC), as well as the ability of the tissue to convert exogenous ACC to ethylene. Chlorsulfuron had little effect on ethylene production when administered to the hypocotylsin vitro. Removal of the cotyledons from treated seedlings reduced the rate of ethylene evolution from the hypocotyls. These results suggest that stimulation of ethylene production in sunflower hypocotyls by chlorsulfuron is not a wound response but rather is dependent on factors derived from the cotyledons.