Influence of ethnic traditional cultures on genetic diversity of rice landraces under on-farm conservation in southwest China

Background

Crop genetic resources are important components of biodiversity. However, with the large-scale promotion of mono-cropping, genetic diversity has largely been lost. Ex-situ conservation approaches were widely used to protect traditional crop varieties worldwide. However, this method fails to maintain the dynamic evolutionary processes of crop genetic resources in their original habitats, leading to genetic diversity reduction and even loss of the capacity of resistance to new diseases and pests. Therefore, on-farm conservation has been considered a crucial complement to ex-situ conservation. This study aimed at clarifying the genetic diversity differences between ex-situ conservation and on-farm conservation and to exploring the influence of traditional cultures on genetic diversity of rice landraces under on-farm conservation.

Methods

The conservation status of rice landrace varieties, including Indica and Japonica, non-glutinous rice (Oryza sativa) and glutinous rice (Oryza sativa var. glutinosa Matsum), was obtained through ethno-biology investigation method in 12 villages of ethnic groups from Guizhou, Yunnan and Guangxi provinces of China. The genetic diversity between 24 pairs of the same rice landraces from different times were compared using simple sequence repeat (SSR) molecular markers technology. The landrace paris studied were collected in 1980 and maintained ex-situ, while 2014 samples were collected on-farm in southwest of China.

Results

The results showed that many varieties of rice landraces have been preserved on-farm by local farmers for hundreds or thousands of years. The number of alleles (Na), effective number of alleles (Ne), Nei genetic diversity index (He) and Shannon information index (I) of rice landraces were significantly higher by 12.3–30.4 % under on-farm conservation than under ex-situ conservation. Compared with the ex-situ conservation approach, rice landraces under on-farm conservation programs had more alleles and higher genetic diversity. In every site we investigated, ethnic traditional cultures play a positive influence on rice landrace variety diversity and genetic diversity.

Conclusion

Most China’s rice landraces were conserved in the ethnic areas of southwest China. On-farm conservation can effectively promote the allelic variation and increase the genetic diversity of rice landraces over the past 35 years. Moreover, ethnic traditional culture practices are a crucial foundation to increase genetic diversity of rice landraces and implement on-farm conservation.

     

The Mitogen-Activated Protein Kinase Scaffold KSR1 Is Required for Recruitment of Extracellular Signal-Regulated Kinase to the Immunological Synapse

KSR1 is a mitogen-activated protein (MAP) kinase scaffold that enhances the activation of the MAP kinase extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK). The function of KSR1 in NK cell function is not known. Here we show that KSR1 is required for efficient NK-mediated cytolysis and polarization of cytolytic granules. Single-cell analysis showed that ERK is activated in an all-or-none fashion in both wild-type and KSR1-deficient cells. In the absence of KSR1, however, the efficiency of ERK activation is attenuated. Imaging studies showed that KSR1 is recruited to the immunological synapse during T-cell activation and that membrane recruitment of KSR1 is required for recruitment of active ERK to the synapse.Kinase suppressor of Ras was originally identified in Drosophila melanogaster (53) and Caenorhabditis elegans (19, 32, 52) as a positive regulator of the extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK) mitogen-activated protein (MAP) kinase signaling pathway. It is thought to function as a MAP kinase scaffold because it can bind to Raf, MEK, and ERK (18, 19, 27, 28, 44, 59). While the exact function of KSR is unknown, preassembling the three components of the ERK MAP kinase cascade could function to enhance the efficiency of ERK activation, potentially regulate the subcellular location of ERK activation, and promote access to specific subcellular substrates (16, 45, 46).While only one isoform of KSR is expressed in Drosophila (53), two KSR isoforms have been identified in C. elegans (19, 32, 52) and most higher organisms. They are referred to as KSR1 and KSR2 (32, 43). While KSR1 mRNA and protein are detectable in a wide variety of cells and tissues, including brain, thymus, and muscle (10, 11, 29), little is known about the expression pattern of KSR2.We previously reported the phenotype of KSR1-deficient mice (30). These mice are born at Mendelian ratios and develop without any obvious defects. Using gel filtration, we showed that KSR1 promotes the formation of large signaling complexes containing KSR1, Raf, MEK, and ERK (30). Using both primary T cells stimulated with antibodies to the T-cell receptor as well as fibroblasts stimulated with growth factors, we showed that KSR1-deficient cells exhibit an attenuation of ERK activation with defects in cell proliferation.Here we explored the role of KSR1 in NK cell-mediated cytolysis. The killing of a target cell by a cytolytic T cell or NK cell is a complicated process that involves cell polarization with microtubule-dependent movement of cytolytic granules to an area that is proximal to the contact surface or immunological synapse (7, 33, 34, 48-50, 54). A variety of different signaling molecules are also involved, including calcium (23), phosphatidylinositol-3,4,5-triphosphate (13, 17), and activation of the ERK MAP kinase (6, 42, 56). Recently, the recruitment of activated ERK to the immunological synapse (IS) has been shown to be a feature of successful killing of a target by cytotoxic T lymphocytes (58).How active ERK is recruited to the synapse is not known. Since KSR1 is known to be recruited to the plasma membrane by Ras activation (24), and since the immunological synapse is one of the major sites of Ras activation (26, 41), it seemed plausible to test the hypothesis that KSR1 recruitment to the plasma membrane functions to recruit ERK to the immunological synapse and facilitate its activation. We found that KSR1 was recruited to the immunological synapse and that KSR1 appeared to be required for the localization of active ERK at the contact site. As KSR1-deficient cells exhibit a defect in killing, this suggests that KSR1 recruitment to the synapse may be important in the cytolytic killing of target cells.     

Archaeobotanical analysis of radiocarbon-dated plant remains with special attention to <Emphasis Type="Italic">Secale cereale</Emphasis> (rye) cultivation at the medieval village of Mankby in Espoo (Finland)

Several urban medieval sites in Finland (ad 1000–1500) have been archaeobotanically investigated, but until now only a few rural medieval settlements have been studied. Therefore, many aspects of the crops and agricultural methods of medieval villages in Finland still remain unknown. At the 12th to mid-16th century medieval village of Mankby, Espoo, a systematic sampling for archaeobotanical material was carried out. The analysed samples derived from hearths, building contexts and medieval field layers etc. The archaeobotanical material was carbonised, and it consisted mostly of conifer needles, cereal grains and weed seeds. Secale cereale (rye) and Hordeum vulgare (barley) were the only crop species found, Secale being the most frequent. Seeds of Bromus secalinus (rye brome) and achenes of Centaurea cyanus (cornflower), which are associated with autumn sown winter cereal crops, were also present. The archaeobotanical material shows areas of activity linked to storing crops, as well as cultivation within the village boundaries. Based on radiocarbon dated grains, cultivation of the fields started in the 12th century and continued until the abandonment of the village in 1556. Archaeobotanical material from Mankby has been compared to other contemporary sites in Finland, and differences between the sites can be seen. Results from Mankby have added to our knowledge of medieval agriculture, past areas of activity and economic conditions within the village.     

Farmers’ perception of termites in agriculture production and their indigenous utilization in Northwest Benin

Background

Although termites are considered as agricultural pests, they play an important role in maintaining the ecosystem. Therefore, it matters to investigate the farmers’ perception of the impacts of the termites on the agriculture and their indigenous utilization.

Methods

A semi-structured questionnaire was used to interview 94 farmers through 10 villages of Atacora department, in the northwestern region of Benin, to obtain information for the development of successful strategies of termite management and conservation. Their perceptions on the importance and management of termites along with the indigenous nomenclature and utilization of termite mounds were assessed. Termite species identified by farmers were collected and preserved in 80% alcohol for identification.

Results

Eight crops were identified by farmers as susceptible to termites with maize, sorghum, and yam as being the most susceptible. According to farmers, the susceptibility to termites of these crops is due to their high-water content and sweet taste. A total of 27 vernacular names of termites were recorded corresponding to 10 species, Amitermes evuncifer, Macrotermes subhyalinus, and Trinervitermes oeconomus being the most damaging termite species. All the names given to termite species had a meaning. The drought was identified by farmers as the main factor favouring termite attacks. Demolition of termite mounds in the fields was the most commonly reported control method. Salt and other pesticides were commonly used by farmers to protect stored farm products. The lack of effective control methods is the main constraint for termite management. In northwestern Benin, farmers reported different purpose utilizations of termite mounds and termites.

Conclusions

The study has shown that farmers perceived termites as pests of several agricultural crops and apply various indigenous control practices whose efficiency need to be verified. Utilization of termites and termite mound soil as food and medicinal resources underlines the need for a more focused approach to termite control for the conservation of non-pest termite species. The sensitization of farmers on the importance of termites as well as the development of an integrated control method to combat termite pests proved necessary.

     

西双版纳社区旱稻品种多样性与就地保护初探

应用户级水平农业生物多样性评价方法,对云南省西双版纳州3个少数民族村寨(哈尼族大卡老寨、基诺族巴卡小寨和傣族曼那龙寨)的旱稻(Oryza sativa)品种进行收集,就旱稻品种的管理和利用等问题进行了问卷调查和农户访谈,并基于农艺性状的统计分析,初步探讨了社区旱稻品种多样性的就地保护措施。结果如下：(1)在3个调查村寨共记载收集到31个旱稻品种,多样的旱稻品种满足了人们的不同需求;(2)主成分分析结果表明,旱稻品种农艺性状多样性主要表现在产量性状和剑叶形态两个方面,其中巴卡小寨和大卡老寨的品种多样性均高于曼那龙寨,并且这些早稻品种中存在具优良性状的稻种资源;(3)3个少数民族村寨具有不同的民族文化背景,不同民族间或不同村寨农户间自发的种子交换以及他们传统的轮作、间作耕作方式,维持和提高了旱稻品种多样性;(4)通过保护民族文化和传统习俗,充分利用当地民族的旱稻种植管理知识,促进民间自发的种子交换,由政府、科研机构和农户共同参与,通过示范和培训加强科学指导,是对西双版纳社区旱稻品种资源多样性进行就地保护的有效措施。     

A model for determining ex situ conservation priorities in big genera is provided by analysis of the subgenera of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Rhododendron</Emphasis> (Ericaceae)

The large size and complex taxonomy of big genera complicates decision making for conservation. We propose that Rhododendron, comprising some 1215 taxa, divided into nine subgenera and many sections, can be used as a model for other big genera. Although Red List assessments placed 715 taxa in a threat category, or listed them as Data Deficient, and moreover Target 8 of the Global Strategy for Plant Conservation requires 75 % of Red List taxa to be held in ex situ collections by 2020, to date there have been few studies of Rhododendron ex situ collections or conservation priorities. Utilising the subgenus structure of Rhododendron as a framework for examining conservation priorities, we analysed the Red List and determined that subgenera Vireya and Hymenanthes have the most acute conservation issues. Examination of taxa in cultivation shows that 844 of 1215 taxa (70 %) are in cultivation, with subgenera varying from 45 to 100 %. Of the 715 Red List taxa, 400 (56 %) are in cultivation, with subgenera varying from 28 to 72 %. Subgenera Vireya and Azaleastrum have the poorest representation in cultivation and should have precedence for ex situ conservation. As no subgenus reaches the requirement for Target 8, further planning is needed for ex situ conservation of Rhododendron. After combining the two analyses, we propose the priorities for ex situ conservation should be ordered (i) Vireya, (ii) Azaleastrum and (iii) Hymenanthes. Finally, we propose five conservation actions for Rhododendron, and summarise our approach as a model for conservation of other big genera.     

Ignoring spatial heterogeneity in social conditions overestimates extinction risk of aquatic macrophytes

Aim

Abandoned lands are expanding globally due to depopulation in rural areas; biodiversity is declining due to the cessation of traditional management practices. However, the awareness of abandonment as a serious threat is still limited. Knowledge of the influence of the responsible factors on the assessment of regional extinction risk of species due to abandonment is sparse although it is indispensable for conservation decision‐making. This study aimed to clarify the influence of the heterogeneity in abandonment risk and interspecies differences in sensitivity to abandonment on regional species extinction risk and to identify the attributes of the species whose extinction risk is prone to be assessed inaccurately by ignoring the abandonment risk.

Location

Awaji Island, Hyogo, Western Japan.

Methods

We assessed the extinction risk of 64 species of macrophytes under four scenarios: 2 × 2 combinations whether to incorporate interspecies differences in sensitivity to abandonment and the abandonment risk, respectively.

Results

Ignoring the abandonment risk overestimated the extinction risk of most species by 10%, whereas ignoring interspecies differences in sensitivity did not significantly affect the extinction risk. Ignoring the abandonment risk overestimated the extinction risk of emergent plants by 12%, whereas it underestimated that of free‐floating plants or threatened plants by 5%. Spatial bias in abandonment risk markedly reduced the correlation between the extinction risk and the frequency of species occurrence.

Main conclusions

The abandonment risk was more effective in accurately assessing the extinction risk due to abandonment than interspecies differences in sensitivity. Extinction risk of emergent, free‐floating or threatened species were assessed inaccurately by ignoring the abandonment risk. Focusing only on the area of occurrence or the extent of occurrence of a species as a surrogate for its extinction risk is likely to produce inaccurate assessments, and thus should be avoided.

     

Complementarity between Geographical and social patterns in the preservation of yam (Dioscorea sp.) diversity in Northern Benin

This study was undertaken to contribute to the sustainable management of yam (Dioscorea sp.) diversity in Benin. We surveyed 220 farms from eight different villages in the north part of Benin. We hypothesized that the richness of yam cultivars is more related to farmers’ ethnic group than to their geographical location. Cultivar diversity may differ from one ethnic group to another within a given area, but remains constant for a given ethnic group independent of its geographical location. This study identified 182 yam cultivars in the region; however, only a few farmers on a very small scale marginally produce more than 50% of that total richness. Cultivation practices as well as historical and socio-cultural determinants played important roles in the creation and maintenance of yam diversity within each ethnic group. The Bariba and the Gando ethnic groups, having developed yam cultivation since time immemorial, still hold the most diverse collection of yam varieties. The access of farmers to main roads and the availability of arable and in a given village greatly influenced the overall yam diversity in the region. This study highlighted the need to combine social determinants and geographical patterns in the conservation of agricultural diversity in Benin.     

Dynamics of soil carbon,nitrogen, and phosphorus in calcareous soils after land-use abandonment – A chronosequence study

Aims

The objective of this study was to investigate changes in soil total organic C (TOC), total nitrogen (TN), phosphorus (P) fractions, and microbial community structure during secondary succession after abandonment of vineyards on calcareous soils.

Methods

Two chronosequences covering 200 years and differing in aspect and slope were established in Hungary, and the upper 10 cm of the mineral soils were studied.

Results

We found strong increases in TOC concentrations after land-use abandonment, especially at the south-exposed sites. The TOC/TN ratio increased by a factor of 1.3 in the south-west exposed chronosequence and by a factor of 1.6 in south exposed chronosequence. The concentration of labile P (NaHCO₃-extractable P) diminished during the first 50 years after land-use abandonment, leading to low P availability at the later stages of the succession. The total organic P (TOP) concentration increased during the first 40 years after abandonment. At the later stages of succession, TOP concentrations decreased again, while the ratio of TOC/TOP increased continuously over 200 years. The ratio of arbuscular-mycorrhizal-fungi-to-bacteria (AMF/bacteria) increased strongly during the first decade after abandonment of the vineyards.

Conclusions

Our study indicates that impacts of former cultivation on secondary ecosystems persisted for more than a century, and that especially P concentrations showed long lasting legacy effects.

     

Impact of traditional culture on <Emphasis Type="Italic">Camellia reticulata</Emphasis> in Yunnan,China

Background

Cha-hua (Camellia reticulata) is one of China’s traditional ornamental flowers developed by the local people of Yunnan Province. Today, more than 500 cultivars and hybrids are recognized. Many ancient camellia trees still survive and are managed by local peopl. A few records on cha-hua culture exist, but no studies expound the interaction between C. reticulata and traditional culture of ethnic groups. The contribution of traditional culture of different nationalities and regions to the diversity of Camellia reticulate is discussed.

Methods

Ethnobotanical surveys were conducted throughout Central and Western Yunnan to investigate and document the traditional culture related to Camellia reticulata. Five sites were selected to carry out the field investigation. Information was collected using participatory observation, semi-structured interviews, key informant interviews, focus group discussions, and participatory rural appraisal (PRA).

Results

Most of the ancient camellia trees were preserved or saved in the courtyards of old buildings and cultural or religious sites. Religion-associated culture plays an important role in C. reticulata protection. In every site we investigated, we found extensive traditional culture on C. reticulata and its management. These traditional cultures have not only protected the germplasm resources of C. reticulata, but also improved the diversity of Camellia cultivars.

Conclusions

There are abundant and diverse genetic resources of cha-hua, Camellia reticulata in Yunnan. Cha-hua is not only an ornamental flower but also has been endowed with rich spiritual connotation. The influence of traditional culture had improved the introduction and domestication of wild plants, breeding and selection of different varieties, and the propagation and dissemination of the tree in Yunnan. However, either some ancient cha-hua trees or their associated traditional culture are facing various threats. The old cha-hua trees and the ethnic camellia culture should be respected and protected since they have made great contributions in the history, and will make more contributions in the future.

     

Investigating the genetic diversity and differentiation patterns in the <Emphasis Type="Italic">Penstemon scariosus</Emphasis> species complex under different sample sizes using AFLPs and SSRs

Habitat fragmentation due to anthropogenic activities is the major cause of biodiversity loss. Endemic and narrowly distributed species are the most susceptible to habitat degradation. Penstemon scariosus is one of many species whose natural habitat is vulnerable to industrialization. All varieties of P. scariosus (P. scariosus var. albifluvis, P. scariosus var. cyanomontanus, P. scariosus var. garrettii, P. scariosus var. scariosus) have small distribution ranges, but only P. scariosus var. albifluvis is being considered for listing under the Endangered Species Act. We used eight microsatellites or simple sequence repeats (SSRs) loci and two amplified fragment length polymorphism (AFLP) primer combinations to investigate the population genetic structure and diversity of P. scariosus varieties. Moreover, we compared the utility of the two marker systems in conservation genetics and estimated an appropriate sample size in population genetic studies. Genetic differentiation among populations based on F_st ranged from low to moderate (F_st?=?0.056–0.157) and from moderate to high when estimated with D_es (D_es?=?0.15–0.32). Also, AMOVA analysis shows that most of the genetic variation is within populations. Inbreeding coefficients (F_is) were high in all varieties (0.20–0.56). The Bayesian analysis, STRUCTURE, identified three clusters from SSR data and four clusters from AFLPs. Clusters were not consistent between marker systems and did not represent the current taxonomy. MEMGENE revealed that a high proportion of the genetic variation is due to geographic distance (R²?=?0.38, P?=?0.001). Comparing the genetic measurements from AFLPs and SSRs, we found that AFLP results were more accurate than SSR results across sample size when populations were larger than 25 individuals. As sample size decreases, the estimates become less stable in both AFLP and SSR datasets. Finally, this study provides insight into the population genetic structure of these varieties, which could be used in conservation efforts.     

Local Knowledge on the Uses,Habitat, and Change in Abundance of Multipurpose <Emphasis Type="Italic">Mimusops</Emphasis> Species in Benin

Multipurpose NTFP species typically experience higher harvest demand because of their multiple uses, which, when combined with unsustainable land use practices, may threaten population viability. We assessed local knowledge on the uses, habitat, and population status of Mimusops andongensis and Mimusops kummel, both multipurpose NTFP species in Benin, to promote their valorization and conservation and thus sustain local knowledge on their uses for domestication issues. One hundred households were randomly selected for structured interviews for M. andongensis and 500 for M. kummel. The relationship between age, sex, and ethnic groups and the species uses was assessed using comparison and correspondence analyses. Nearly all organs of the species were used. Both species were mainly exploited for medicinal purposes but also in construction and as firewood. We found similarities in some uses of the species organs, although the species occur in different ecological zones and are used by different ethnic groups. This result should be considered for the valorization of the species. Most informants reported that populations of M. andongensis were decreasing, although some felt that they were increasing, whereas less than one-third said that M. kummel was decreasing. There were strong relationships between gender, age, and ethnic affiliation of the users and the exploited organs of both species. Potential uses exist based on both the past and current uses of the species and in comparison to other countries where they are exploited. Local ethnoecological knowledge and practices will help to valorize and conserve the species. However, further research on the species’ seed germination and propagation ability are also necessary.     

Who Harvests and Why? Characteristics of Guatemalan Households Harvesting Xaté (Chamaedorea ernesti-augusti)1

Who Harvests and Why? Characteristics of Guatemalan Households Harvesting Xaté (Chamaedorea ernesti-augusti). Cultivation of harvested species is frequently proposed as a conservation strategy to reduce wild harvesting pressure and improve local livelihoods. The success of this approach is likely to be influenced by harvesters’ socioeconomic characteristics. Our study focuses on illegal harvesting of a palm species (Chamaedorea ernesti-augusti, locally known as xaté), by Guatemalans in the largely Belizean Greater Maya Mountains. We surveyed 222 households in nine Guatemalan villages close to the Belize/Guatemala border. With this sample we estimated the current intensity of illegal harvesting by Guatemalans in Belize, the characteristics of harvesting households, and their perceptions of the enforcement level of harvesting laws. We estimated that 26 % of households in the study area actively harvest. Harvesting households owned less land than non-harvesting households. Harvesters are aware that harvesting in Belize is illegal and of the sanctions for harvesting. However, incomes from xaté harvesting were favorable compared to alternative available activities and there were few barriers to entry. We conclude that successful conservation interventions promoting cultivation need to take account of existing harvester characteristics and constraints. Lack of secure land tenure means that cultivation is not a feasible alternative for many harvesting households.     

Strain selection and initiation timing influence the cultivation period of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Saccharina japonica</Emphasis> and their impact on the abalone feed industry in Korea

Cultivations of the brown seaweed, Saccharina japonica, was developed, promoted, and industrialized in the 1970s and is highly valued in Korea both for human consumption and as a feed for the rapidly developing abalone farming industry. Production has continually increased, and approximately 442,637 tonnes wet weight was harvested in Korea in 2015. Abalone is a highly sought-after delicacy in Korea, and the abalone farming industry has been developed based on a stable production of seaweed. Korean abalone farmers prefer to feed their stock on locally cultured S. japonica; however, between August and November, the supply of farmed S. japonica declines because higher seawater temperatures reduce S. japonica productivity. In an attempt to overcome this temperature-induced period of low production, cultivation trials with a strain of S. japonica selected to withstand higher cultivation temperatures were undertaken. Strain selection involved using individual parent thalli that were found to remain productive under high seawater temperature (26 °C) at Wando. Male and female gametophytes were isolated through 3 cycles of free-living gametophyte culture to produce the F₃ strain used in the production trials. Production trials using the selected strain were initiated every month between December 2014 and March 2015. This delayed the initiation of culture beyond the latest initiation time currently used by farmers (December). Delaying initiation of cultivation resulted in delayed maximum growth compared to the control. Growth of the F₃ strain continued for up to 3 months longer than normally achieved on farms for non-selected thalli. The mean length, growth rate, and biomass were also greater than those achieved by the control strain. The use of the F₃ strain of S. japonica coupled with delayed initiation of culture can therefore be used to help to ensure a stable year round algal feed supply for abalone industry in Korea.     

Susceptibility of germinating cruciferous seeds to <Emphasis Type="Italic">Bagrada hilaris</Emphasis> (Hemiptera: Pentatomidae) feeding injury

Bagrada hilaris (Burmeister) (Hemiptera: Pentatomidae) is a serious pest that attacks both germinating and seedling stages of a variety of cruciferous crops grown in the Central Coast of California. B. hilaris feeding on germinating seeds can cause severe stunting and plant mortality, and little is known about the feeding preference of B. hilaris for germinating seeds of major cruciferous hosts and varieties of hosts. No-choice and choice experiments were conducted in which germinating seeds in soilless and soil settings were exposed to B. hilaris adults for 7 days. Susceptibility scores were developed using B. hilaris feeding injury sites, distorted leaves, and deformed and dead plants to determine the overall B. hilaris preference for germinating host seeds. Based on the scores, the order of preference was arugula (Eruca sativa L.)?>?turnip (B. rapa L. var. rapa)?>?mizuna (B. rapa L. nipposinica)?>?kale (B. oleracea L. acephala)?>?choi (Brassica rapa L. var. chinensis)?>?broccoli (B. oleracea var. italica Plenck)?>?cauliflower (B. oleracea L. var. botrytis)?>?lettuce (Lactuca sativa L.)?>?sweet alyssum (Lobularia maritima [L.] Desv.). The lowest feeding injury was recorded on germinating lettuce and sweet alyssum seeds. Furthermore, no-choice and choice experiments were conducted with four varieties each of arugula and mizuna, twelve varieties each of kale and choi, and nine varieties/types of leafy Asian greens. The arugula varieties ‘Wild Rocket’ and ‘Spirit’ were more damaged by B. hilaris than other varieties tested. Among mizuna varieties, ‘Beira F1’ was more attractive to B. hilaris than ‘Scarlet’ or ‘Starbor F1.’ The choi varieties ‘Tokyo Bekana,’ ‘Feng Qing Choi F1,’ ‘Joi Choi F1,’ and ‘Win-Win Choi F1’ were more attractive than ‘Rosie F1.’ The leafy Asian greens variety ‘Carlton F1’ was more attractive to B. hilaris than ‘Yukina Savon,’ ‘Tatsoi OG,’ ‘Komatsuna Summerfest F1,’ ‘Red Rain F1,’ and ‘Shungiku.’ Therefore, the results suggest that not all varieties were equally susceptible to B. hilaris feeding and possibly be utilized for further field evaluation as a trap crop or developing more resistant varieties to B. hilaris.     

Ethnobotanical Study of Traditional Building Materials from the Island of Bali,Indonesia

Ethnobotanical Study of Traditional Building Materials from the Island of Bali, Indonesia. Local knowledge of plant-based building materials has long been part of Balinese tradition. In order to better understand this particular tradition, we carried out a comprehensive ethnobotanical study of 13 aga villages. The data were obtained through semi-structured interviews and questionnaires. Seventy-eight species of plants were identified, comprising 63 genera and 34 families, of which 46% are native to the Flora Malesiana floristic region, 20% to the Indian floristic region, and 17% to the Indochinese floristic region. Ninety-one percent were trees. The most frequently used part was the stem (88%). The main use categories reported for building materials were houses (58%), religious uses (Balinese Hindu temple; 35%), stables (5%), and barns (2%). Thirty-eight percent appeared in more than one use category. Arenga pinnata (Wurmb) Merr. and Magnolia champaca (L.) Baill. ex Pierre were the two species that possessed the highest values in the preference ranking for use value (UV) followed by Artocarpus heterophyllus Lam. Species richness differed substantially between villages according to their different levels of traditional knowledge preservation. Despite the impact of the fast-growing tourist industry and the decline of local knowledge, the Balinese who live in the study areas still depend on locally available indigenous plant species for their building materials. The cultivation of these indigenous plants is in a period of crisis, especially with regard to conservation.     

Diversity of fungi associated with roots of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Calanthe</Emphasis> orchid species in Korea

While symbiotic fungi play a key role in the growth of endangered Calanthe orchid species, the relationship between fungal diversity and Calanthe species remains unclear. Here, we surveyed root associated fungal diversity of six Calanthe orchid species by sequencing the internal transcribed spacer (ITS) region using 454 pyrosequencing. Our results revealed that Paraboeremia and Coprinopsis are dominant fungal genera among Calanthe species. In terms of overall relative abundance, Paraboeremia was the most common fungal genus associated with Calanthe roots, followed by Coprinopsis. Overall fungal diversity showed a significant degree of variation depending on both location and Calanthe species. In terms of number of different fungal genera detected within Calanthe species, C. discolor had the most diverse fungal community, with 10 fungal genera detected. This study will contribute toward a better understanding of those fungi that are required for successful cultivation and conservation of Korean Calanthe species.