The economic value of publicly accessible deer hunting land

Access to lands for hunting is widely recognized as critical to sustaining and developing participation in hunting. Deer hunters comprise a substantial portion of recreational hunters in the United States, and numerous stakeholders benefit from the deer management services provided by hunters on public lands. We estimated the economic value of publicly accessible deer hunting land in Michigan using economic models of hunting destinations for hunters in the archery season and for hunters in the firearm season. We found that the amounts of state-owned hunting land, federally owned hunting land, and publicly accessible, privately owned Commercial Forest Act land are significant (P < 0.001) and positive determinants of hunting destinations. The annual economic value of Michigan's publicly accessible hunting land to archery and firearm deer hunters, beyond hunter expenditures, was estimated to be over $80 million. Access to state-owned land accounted for approximately $50 million in annual economic value to Michigan deer hunters. The average per-acre value of publicly accessible hunting land is greatest in the Southern Lower Peninsula of Michigan, where public access is scarce and the majority of hunters reside. Understanding the economic values hunters derive from publicly accessible hunting lands will enable managers and policy makers to make better decisions when considering policy options that involve reducing or increasing public access. © 2011 The Wildlife Society.     

Aerial hunting behaviour and predation success by peregrine falcons Falco peregrinus on starling flocks Sturnus vulgaris

Predators use diverse hunting strategies to maximize hunting success, while preys adopt anti‐predator strategies to maximize escape chances, among which flocking, communal roosting, and the related collective responses are a common pattern in gregarious species. Prey‐predator interactions involving a single predator and flocks, a common situation in birds, have received little attention. We studied predation behaviour and success of peregrine falcons Falco peregrinus on starlings Sturnus vulgaris, a highly gregarious species, in proximity of two winter roosts. A total of 328 hunting sequences, with an overall success of 23.1% were recorded. They usually consisted of several attacks, predation success being higher when hunting sequences lasted less than 1.5 min, included less than 3 attacks and no other falcons were hunting simultaneously. Predation success was higher when hunts were directed on singletons than on flocks. However, most hunting sequences were directed towards flocks. Nine hunting strategies on flocks were identified. The most frequent was the ‘surprise attack’, which was also the most successful. We suggest that this strategy minimizes the amount of anti‐predator display elicited by flocks and economizes energy spent in hunting. The constant predation pressure did not seem to affect the use of roosts by starlings, consistent with the ‘dilution’ hypothesis, while falcons captured at least one prey item every evening. Communal roosting may benefit predator and prey, as both sides could have reached a mutual local equilibrium.     

Influence of chimpanzee predation on the red colobus population at Ngogo, Kibale National Park, Uganda

Frequent hunting of red colobus monkeys (Procolobus rufomitratus) takes place at all long-term chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes) study sites where both species are present. Red colobus are the most commonly selected prey of chimpanzees even when other monkey species are more abundant. In particular, the chimpanzee community at Ngogo, Kibale National Park, Uganda, preys heavily on red colobus monkeys: the chimpanzee hunting success rate is extremely high, and chimpanzees kill many individuals per successful hunt. Census data had suggested that the red colobus population is declining and that predation by chimpanzees may be contributing to this decline. In this paper, I address the impact of hunting on the red colobus population at Ngogo. To test the hypothesis that chimpanzee hunting is sustainable, I am using demographic data collected on red colobus monkeys over a period of 3 years, as well as fecundity and mortality data from previous studies of this species. I apply matrix models and vortex analyses using a sensitivity analysis approach to project future population development. Results show that current rates of hunting are not sustainable, but that chimpanzees are neither more “noble”, nor more “savage” than humans are, but that they also hunt to ensure maximum benefit without regard for the consequences for the prey population.     

Indirect cues in selecting a hunting site in a sit‐and‐wait predator

Sit‐and‐wait predators use relatively simple rules for their decisions to choose and leave a patch, such as using the direct presence of prey to select a hunting site. However, the direct presence of prey can only be used when there is a highly visited patch in the proximity of the predator. Therefore, it is plausible that sit‐and‐wait predators also exploit indirect cues of prey presence and, consequently, use associative learning to select a hunting site. The present study tests for the role of associative learning in a sit‐and‐wait predator species for which the ecology is well understood: Misumena vatia Clerck crab spiders. An ecologically relevant scenario is used by selecting flower colour as the conditioned stimulus and prey presence as the unconditioned stimulus. The results provide no evidence that M. vatia crab spiders use the association between flower colour and food presence for selecting a hunting site. After a training phase of being exposed to a colourful artificial flower highly visited by bees, spiders select a hunting site independently of its colour during the testing phase. Investigations of similar scope and ecological relevance are required with other sit‐and‐wait predators to identify the conditions promoting the use of associative learning for foraging site selection when animals face an unpredictable food supply.     

Hunting Behavior of Chimpanzees at Ngogo,Kibale National Park,Uganda

Chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes) prey on a variety of vertebrates, mostly on red colobus (Procolobus spp.) where the two species are sympatric. Variation across population occurs in hunting frequency and success, in whether hunting is cooperative, i.e., payoffs to individual hunters increase with group size, and in the extent to which hunters coordinate their actions in space and time, and in the impact of hunting on red colobus populations. Also, hunting frequency varies over time within populations, for reasons that are unclear. We present new data on hunting by chimpanzees at Ngogo, Kibale National Park, Uganda, and combine them with earlier data (Mitani and Watts, 1999, Am. J. Phys. Anthropol. 109: 439–454) to examine hunting frequency and success, seasonality, and cooperation. The Ngogo community is the largest and has the most males of any known community. Chimpanzees there mostly hunt red colobus and are much more successful and make many more kills per hunt than at other sites; they kill 6–12% of the red colobus population annually. The number of kills and the offtake of meat per hunt increase with the number of hunters, but per capita meat intake is independent of hunting party size; this suggests that cheating occurs in large parties. Some behavioral cooperation occurs. Hunting success and estimated meat intake vary greatly among males, partly due to dominance rank effects. The high overall success rate leads to relatively high average per capita meat intake despite the large number of consumers. The frequency of hunts and of hunting patrols varies positively with the availability of ripe fruit; this is the first quantitative demonstration of a relationship between hunting frequency and the availability of other food, and implies that the chimpanzees hunt most when they can easily meet energy needs from other sources. We provide the first quantitative support for the argument that variation in canopy structure influences decisions to hunt red colobus because hunts are easier where the canopy is broken.     

Red-tailed monkeys (Cercopithecus ascanius) hunt green pigeons (Treron calva) in the Kalinzu Forest in Uganda

Red-tailed monkeys (Cercopithecus ascanius) were observed hunting green pigeons (Treron calva) in the Kalinzu Forest in Uganda. During 2 h 39 min, I observed two cases of successful hunting and one case of unsuccessful hunting in a Ficus saussureana tree. Red-tailed monkeys stalked the pigeons until they were within 2–3 m, and then jumped and caught them. In both successful cases, blue monkeys (C. mitis) ran to the hunting site from adjacent trees in order to poach the prey, and the red-tailed monkeys fled. One of these red-tailed monkeys dropped the pigeon while fleeing, and the blue monkey climbed down from the tree to search for it. This is the first record of cercopithecoid monkeys hunting birds that are outside of the nest and moving freely, and also the first record of red-tailed monkeys hunting vertebrates. However rare it may be, the repeated hunting attempts using similar techniques and the immediate attempt of blue monkeys to poach the prey suggest that this type of hunting was not a one-time event that happened by chance. Blue monkeys and an adult chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes schweinfurthii) in and around the fig tree did not attempt to hunt. The hunting of volant birds may be enabled by the small body size and the quick movements of red-tailed monkeys.     

Nonconsumptive effects of hunting on a nontarget game bird

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Evaluation of multiple behavioral responses of sika deer to human hunting pressures

Several ungulate populations have become overabundant worldwide, resulting in ecological and social effects. Wildlife managers must establish effective population control programs to mitigate these negative influences. Hunting is a significant mortality factor for ungulates, which exhibit sensitive behavioral responses toward hunting activities. Wildlife managers need a comprehensive understanding of the ungulate responses to different hunting pressures across seasons. We developed a conceptual method to evaluate multiple behavioral responses to human hunting pressures and applied this to sika deer (Cervus nippon) in Hokkaido, Japan, during August and November in 2015. We measured flight behavior, spatial avoidance, and temporal activity shift during non-hunting and hunting seasons in 4 regions with different hunting pressures. Although we did not observe a clear difference in flight initiation distance among study areas or seasons, sika deer showed significant spatial avoidance during the hunting season in areas with high hunting pressure. Furthermore, sika deer were more active at night in areas with higher hunting pressures, regardless of the season. Collectively, these results suggest that sika deer responded to hunting pressure by changing diel activity to nocturnal throughout the year and avoiding risky areas (i.e., around hunting roads) during hunting season, rather than by increasing flight distance when they encounter humans. Our method can be used for a more efficient population control program for wildlife managers, as it considers the spatiotemporal variations of flexible ungulate behaviors in response to hunting pressures.     

Evaluating Differences in Harvest Data Used in the Sex-Age-Kill Deer Population Model

Abstract: A steady increase in archery hunting participation and frequent changes in hunter regulations led to an evaluation of harvest data used in a common white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) population model. Our goal was to determine if model parameters and population estimates traditionally estimated solely by firearm harvest data were biased with respect to altered sex and age ratios brought about by increases in archery hunting and harvest success. The sex-age-kill (SAK) model, commonly used by state agencies, was developed in the mid-1900s when deer numbers were low and firearm harvest was predominant. Management actions were concentrated on increasing deer numbers, and model assumptions relied heavily on a stable age distribution and a minimal antlerless deer harvest. We evaluated the reliance of SAK in a modern hunting scenario using a 10-year dataset obtained from Michigan, USA, that encompassed a variety of climatic regions, hunting seasons, and regulation scenarios. We found that firearm and archery harvest sex and age ratios differed among 5 geographic groups and study years for males, females, and fawns (P<0.001, P = 0.001, and P = 0.037, respectively). Also, the addition of archery harvest data increased population estimates but did not alter overall trends. We recommend that managers reassess harvest-based population estimates in 2 situations: 1) if regulation changes affect antlerless deer harvest, and 2) when trends in hunter success rates cause fluctuations in harvest data.     

Behavioral evidence of hunting and foraging techniques by a top predator suggests the importance of scavenging for preadults

Scavenging may be a regular feeding behavior for some facultative raptor species occupying low quality habitats and/or with little experience in hunting techniques. However, its importance has been largely underestimated due to methodological limitations in identifying the real proportion in the diet. Here, through direct observations, we assessed the hunting and foraging success of the threatened Spanish imperial eagle Aquila adalberti determining the influence of age, sex, breeding status, habitat quality, prey type, and landscape characteristics. From 465 observations, Spanish imperial eagles used hunting in flight (42%), scavenging (30%), hunting from a perch (16%) and kleptoparasitism (12%). Our model suggests that Prey size and Prey type best explain hunting success, followed by Landscape and Sex. Our findings suggest that Spanish imperial eagles increase hunting success with age, with scavenging and kleptoparasitism regularly used as juveniles. The absence of relationships with any of the variables considered suggests that kleptoparasitism is an opportunistic behavior used sporadically. Scavenging is also independent of habitat quality and landscape characteristics. Accordingly, low prey density is not a driver of carrion use for preadult individuals, suggesting that a lack of hunting ability obliges this age‐class to use this alternative feeding technique regularly. As a result, the threatened Spanish imperial eagle population is also prone to mortality related to the illegal use of poison baits and, potentially, veterinary drugs (i.e., diclofenac).     

The effect of prey type and density on the foraging efficiency of juvenile perch, (Perca fluviatilis)

The foraging efficiency of juvenile perch (Perca fluviatilis), feeding on two types of prey, was studied in laboratory experiments. Waterfleas (Daphnia magna) and phantom midge larvae (Chaoborus flavicans) were offered in a range of densities, either separately or combined. Perch fed more efficiently on each prey type separately than when both were mixed. Foraging efficiency decreased with an increase of mixed prey density with both prey types present in equal numbers, but also when the proportion of Chaoborus increased. This could be caused by the existence of different hunting techniques, each of which is fully efficient in the presence of one prey type only. In the presence of two prey types, the predator constantly has to switch from one hunting technique to another.     

Choice of hunting site as a consequence of experience in late-instar crab spiders

Earlier experiences may play an important role in the choice of hunting sites, but their effects on the foraging repertoire of most animals remain poorly understood. I tested the role of previous flower choices (hunting sites) by penultimate-instar female crab spiders Misumena vatia in making subsequent patch-choice decisions. M. vatia is a sit-and-wait predator, and the two flower species used, ox-eye daisy Chrysanthemum leucanthemum and common buttercup Ranunculus acris, are important hunting sites. Spiders with different immediate experience showed similar short-term (<1 day) giving-up times on the two flower species, independent of their previous substrate. However, four-fifths of the individuals that remained a day or longer tended to leave buttercups sooner than daisies, especially if they had previously occupied daisies. Thus they may directly assess the quality of a potential hunting site, perhaps in response to prey abundance, but previous experience may play a minor role as well. Of spiders that made several consecutive choices of hunting sites, those on daisies often confined these runs to daisies (one of two years); those on buttercups did not exhibit comparable fidelity. Spiders molting into the adult stage almost always subsequently chose the same flower species (either daisy or buttercup) as the one on which they molted. Thus, juvenile experiences may influence adults, the critical stage when virtually all of the spiders' reproductive resources are gathered, even if this resulted from imprinting on their molt sites rather than carrying information over the molt. Received: 26 December 1998 / Accepted: 21 April 1999     

Trophy hunting and perceived risk in closed ecosystems: Flight behaviour of three gregarious African ungulates in a semi‐arid tropical savanna

Although being an important conservation tool in Africa, trophy hunting is known to influence risk perception in wildlife species, thus affecting the behaviour and fitness of most targeted species. We studied the effects of trophy hunting on the flight behaviour of impala (Aepyceros melampus), greater kudu (Tragelaphus strepsiceros) and sable (Hippotragus niger) in two closed ecosystems, Cawston Ranch (hunting area) and Stanley and Livingstone Private Game Reserve (tourist area), western Zimbabwe. Using standardized field procedures, we assessed the flight behavioural responses of the three species in two seasons: non‐hunting (December–March) and hunting (April–November) between March 2013 and November 2014. We tested the effect of habitat, group size, sex, season, start distance and alert distance on flight initiation distance using linear mixed models. Habitat, group size sex and alert distance did not have any effect on flight initiation distance for the three species. The three species were more alert and displayed longer flight initiation distances in the hunting area compared with the tourist area. Flight initiation distances for the three species were higher during the hunting season for the hunting area and low during the non‐hunting season. Flight distances of the three species did not differ between the hunting area and the tourist area. We concluded that trophy hunting increased perceived risk of wild ungulates in closed hunting areas, whereas ungulates in non‐hunting areas are less responsive and somehow habituated to human presence. Management plans should include minimum approach distances by tourists as well as establishing seasonal restrictions on special zones to promote species viability. Research aimed at integrating behavioural responses with physiological aspects of target species should be promoted to ensure that managers are able to deal with the behavioural trade‐offs of trophy hunting at local and regional scale.     

Cooperative Hunting and its Relationship to Foraging Success and Prey Size in an Avian Predator

Aplomado falcons (Falco femoralis) often hunt in pairs when chasing birds; 29% of 349 hunts observed in eastern Mexico involved mated pairs of falcons simultaneously chasing the same prey animal; and 66% of 100 hunts of birds were tandem pursuits. Although true cooperative hunting is uncommon in birds of prey, hunts by pairs of Aplomado falcons consistently showed signs of cooperative behavior such as use of a simple coordinative signal, and some division of labor between participating individuals. Pairs were more than twice as successful as solo falcons hunting birds (44% vs. 19%), however, there was no evidence that cooperative hunting increased the range of feasible prey sizes. The frequent use of cooperative foraging in this and similar species may relate to necessities of efficient nest defense, and food and nest procurement in savannas inhabited by a diversity of nest-site predators.     

Hunting as a Source of Local and Traditional Ecological Knowledge among Campesinos in Nicaragua

Campesinos are the most numerous hunters in Latin America. Yet, local and traditional knowledge (LTK) among campesinos about hunting is often invisible to conservationists who perceive them as nonindigenous or illegal hunters. Moreover, research and methods for accessing campesino hunting LTK are limited in theory and practice. Conservationists therefore know little about campesinos’ cultural understandings of hunting. We assessed the LTK of Nicaraguan campesinos to determine whether they shared cultural hunting knowledge. Through 11 months of ethnographic fieldwork, an ethnoecology framework, and cultural consensus analysis, we found that campesino hunting LTK was shared across the study community. This knowledge extended from a worldview that emphasized subsistence and hunting secrets to ensure bountiful harvests, expressed through folk taxonomies, hunting strategies, campesino-dog relationships, and preparation of hunted animals. Campesino hunting LTK emerged from campesino culture, yielding numerous implications for conservation in Latin America.

     

Effect of fox hunting with small hound packs on spatial behaviour of brown hares

Control of red fox Vulpes vulpes populations is a fundamental game management tool used by hunters interested in increasing prey populations. In Italy, a popular method to control fox populations is hunting with small hound packs. The effects of this hunting technique on non-target species such as the brown hare Lepus europaeus, are unknown. In this study, we analysed for the first time the effects of fox hunting with hound packs on brown hares tagged with VHF collars. Our results showed that hunting with four trained hounds did not significantly modify the spatial behaviour of the brown hare.     

Hunting among Moka Bubis in Bioko: dynamics of faunal exploitation at the village level

Hunting by Bubi villages around Moka, Bioko, and their impact on the local prey fauna was studied during July–August, 1992. Questionnaires were sent to 45 known hunters in the region in order to find out their techniques and hunting procedures. Hunting trips were also followed (a total of 204 km covered) and counts of animals brought to the villages from 103 recorded trips were also made. There were two main hunting methods employed: trapping and shooting. Most commonly used was snare trapping. At least five different types were used during the study. Guns were less commonly employed. Both techniques are efficient and productive but prey caught by each method differed. Most animals caught by snares were large rodents (Atherurus africanus, Cricetomys emini) and small antelopes (Cephalophus monticola) whereas those shot were usually antelopes (C. monticola and C. ogilbyi), monkeys (Cercopithecus spp.) and, when accompanied by dogs, drills (Mandrillus leucophaeus). The effects of hunting in the region is acute especially since they incur upon the proclaimed protected areas in the south of the island. Hunting trips are gradually being lengthened and areas which were originally unaffected by this activity are now part of the villages' hunting zones.     

Spring snow goose hunting influences body composition of waterfowl staging in Nebraska

A spring hunt was instituted in North America to reduce abundance of snow geese (Chen caerulescens) by increasing mortality of adults directly, yet disturbance from hunting activities can indirectly influence body condition and ultimately, reproductive success. We estimated effects of hunting disturbance by comparing body composition of snow geese and non-target species, greater white-fronted geese (Anser albifrons) and northern pintails (Anas acuta) collected in portions of south-central Nebraska that were open (eastern Rainwater Basin, ERB) and closed (western Rainwater Basin, WRB; and central Platte River Valley, CPRV) to snow goose hunting during springs 1998 and 1999. Lipid content of 170 snow geese was 25% (57 g) less in areas open to hunting compared to areas closed during hunting season but similar in all areas after hunting was concluded in the ERB. Protein content of snow geese was 3% (14 g) less in the region open to hunting. Greater white-fronted geese had 24% (76 g; n = 129) less lipids in the hunted portion of the study area during hunting season, and this difference persisted after conclusion of hunting season. We found little difference in lipid or protein content of northern pintails in relation to spring hunting. Indirect effects of spring hunting may be considered a collateral benefit regarding efforts to reduce overabundant snow goose populations. Disrupted nutrient storage observed in greater white-fronted geese represents an unintended consequence of spring hunting that has potential to adversely affect reproduction for this and other species of waterbirds staging in the region. © 2012 The Wildlife Society.     

Creation of a nature reserve, its effects on hunting management and waterfowl distribution in the Camargue (southern France)

The eastern portion of the Camargue in southern France is divided into two parts: a natural wetland area of 2800 ha and an agricultural area of 5045 ha. In 1984 and 1989, a new protected area (1000 ha) was created on two contiguous former hunting estates. Analysis of aerial photographs (1968–1998) in conjunction with a field survey revealed, from 1984 to 1998, an increase of management for waterfowl hunting in natural wetlands located on the periphery of the new reserve, and a similar increase in the agricultural area amongst residual wetlands and former rice fields. Based on monthly aerial censuses, the size of the waterfowl population in the winter increased in this part of the delta by a factor of 3.8 following the creation of the reserve. Our results suggest that the creation of a reserve on former hunting estates resulted in greater attractiveness for ducks but also in the development of commercial hunting activity around the edge. This development increased fragmentation and uniformity of natural areas, including the loss of the unique Cladium mariscus habitat in the Camargue and resulted in the spatial expansion of waterfowl hunting areas in agricultural areas. It is associated with an increase in financial profit from waterfowl hunting. Our study highlights unexpected costs for nature conservation associated with the creation of a reserve. It illustrates the need for new models of wetland conservation where protection goals are not restricted to reserves, but also integrate conservation and economic development outside the protected areas.     

Diet specialisation and foraging efficiency under fluctuating vole abundance: a comparison between generalist and specialist avian predators

Specialist species, using a narrow range of resources, are predicted to be more efficient when foraging on their preferred food than generalist species consuming a wider range of foods. We tested whether the foraging efficiency of the pallid harrier Circus macrourus, a vole specialist, and of sympatric Montagu's harriers C. pygargus, a closely related generalist, differed in relation to inter‐annual variations in vole abundance over five years (including two peak‐ one intermediate and two low vole abundance years). We show that the hunting parameters of pallid harriers strongly varied with vole abundance (higher encounter rates, capture rates and proportion of successful strikes in high than intermediate and low vole abundance years, respectively), whereas Montagu's harriers showed stable capture rates and hunting success (proportion of strikes that were successful), irrespective of vole abundance. Encounter rates and capture rates were higher for pallid than for Montagu's harriers when voles were abundant, but lower when voles were scarce. The hunting success of pallid harriers was also lower than that of Montagu's harriers when voles were scarce, and when they had to target alternative preys, in particular birds. Overall, estimated biomass intake rate was 40% higher for pallid harriers than for Montagu's harriers when voles were abundant, but 50% lower when voles were scarce. Our results indicate that specialists predators, like pallid harriers, which evolve specific adaptations or breeding strategies, do better when their preferred prey is abundant, but may face a cost of specialisation, being not efficient enough when their preferred prey is scarce. These results have broader implications for understanding why specialist predators are, in general, more vulnerable than generalists, and for predicting how specialists can cope with rapid environmental changes affecting the abundance or predictability of their preferred resources.