Do Levant Sparrowhawks Accipiter brevipes also migrate at night?

Flight paths of visually identified Levant Sparrowhawks Accipiter brevipes on autumn migration were analysed with a tracking radar in the Arava Valley, Israel. This time of the year there are no significant numbers of other species with a similar wing-beat pattern. This wing-beat pattern was found not only in daytime but also frequently at night. It is suggested that the Levant Sparrowhawk uses two strategies of migration: (1) soaring and gliding to reduce energy consumption; (2) flapping flight to reduce time spent on migration. The latter may be more important towards the end of the migratory season and/or when birds have become separated from the main migratory stream.     

Calling in wild silvery gibbons (Hylobates moloch) in Java (Indonesia): behavior, phylogeny, and conservation

Hardly any behavioral data are available for the silvery gibbon (Hylobates moloch), an endangered primate that is endemic to the island of Java, Indonesia. We studied the singing behavior of the easternmost population of this species in the Dieng mountains, central Java, in 1998-1999. We aimed to document the timing of singing, quantify the amount of singing by the respective sexes, and explore the role of bioacoustics in density estimation. A total of 122 song bouts in at least 12 groups were monitored. No duet songs were heard. Most of the song bouts (91.5%) were female solo song bouts or female scream bouts. In contrast to an earlier study on the westernmost population of silvery gibbons, during which few if any male songs were heard, at least 8.5% of the song bouts in our study were male solo song bouts. They were significantly longer in duration than the female songs. All male song bouts uttered before dawn (0520 hr) were produced in a chorus fashion, with at least three individuals participating. Choruses occurred about once every 8.5 days, and lasted longer and occurred earlier than female solo song bouts. Most male songs (60%) started between 0355-0440 hr, when it was still dark. All female songs, in contrast, started after 0500 hr, and female singing activity peaked around 0600. Regular male singing, male chorusing, and regular predawn singing have not previously been reported for silvery gibbons. Similarly separated periods of male and female solo songs and the absence of duetting have been observed in Kloss's gibbons (H. klossii) on the Mentawai Islands, and may represent synapomorphies shared by both species. The pronounced individual-specific song characteristics of silvery gibbons allow accurate mapping of groups. The density of gibbons at our study site was established to be 1.9-3.7 groups/km2, corresponding to 6.7-13.1 individuals/km2. We reassess the suitability of gibbon songs as a means of estimating the density and size of gibbon populations, and discuss the proximate causes for the absence of duetting in silvery gibbons.     

The magnitude and timing of migration by soaring raptors, pelicans and storks over Israel

The magnitude and timing of the autumn and spring migrations of 35 species of medium-and large-sized raptors, White Pelicans Pelicanus onocrotalus and White Storks Ciconia ciconia were studied in Israel. Observations were carried out from the ground by a line of observers covering most of the width of Israel across the line of migration and by radar. There was a high correlation between the counts obtained by ground observers and by radar. On average, about half a million raptors (mainly Lesser Spotted Eagles Aquila po-marina, Honey Buzzards Pernis apivorus and Levant Sparrowhawks Accipiter brevipes), 250,000 White Storks and 70,000 White Pelicans passed during autumn, and about a million raptors (mainly Honey Buzzards, Steppe Buzzards Buteo vulpinus, Steppe Eagles Aquila nipalensis and Black Kites Milvus migrans) and 450,000 White Storks passed during spring. Peak numbers were higher–over a million raptors and half a million White Storks. There was high interyear variation in the number of migrants recorded during the study, probably caused by weather and counting efforts. For some species, the whole world (Lesser Spotted Eagle and Levant Sparrowhawk) or Palaearctic (White Pelican) population passes over Israel during migration, allowing an estimate of the world populations of these species. Mean dates of arrival of most raptors are highly predictable, with confidence limits ranging between 1.5 and 5.5 days. The migration periods of White Storks and White Pelicans are longer and their mean day of appearance is less predictable (confidence limits range from 4.2 to 13.8 days). During autumn, 90% of the migrating populations of nocking species, such as Levant Sparrowhawk, Lesser Spotted Eagle, Honey Buzzard and Red-footed Falcon Falco vespertinus, pass within 13, 15, 16 and 18 days, respectively, while nonflocking species, such as Egyptian Vulture Neophron percnopterus, Marsh Harrier Circus aeruginosus and Short-toed Eagle Circaetus gallicus, generally take twice as long to pass. Similar passage periods were recorded in spring. For most species, the autumn migration period was longer than the spring migration period, probably because in autumn adults move before the young birds. Three factors affected the timing and spread of the migration wave: age at first breeding, diet and size of the breeding area.     

Responses of breeding Reed Warblers Acrocephalus scirpaceus to mounts of Sparrowhawk Accipiter nisus, Cuckoo Cuculus canorus and Jay Garrulus glandarius

Mounts of a Cuckoo Cuculus canorus , a Sparrowhawk Accipiter nisus and a Jay Garrulus glandarius were presented at nests of Reed Warblers Acrocephalus scirpaceus at all breeding stages. Response strength could best be classified according to approach distance (to the mount) and vocalizations used. Warblers reacted much more aggressively to a mount on the nest than to one 3 m adjacent; they approached much more closely, were less likely to sing but often gave a frenzied-sounding rasp (which was never given to an adjacent mount). Reaction was more aggressive to a Cuckoo, which was often attacked, than to a Sparrowhawk, of which they were wary; response to a Jay was intermediate. Reaction was more aggressive after the clutch had been completed than before. After the brood had fledged, parents still responded strongly to the Jay and Sparrowhawk, but responded to the Cuckoo only briefly before ignoring it. These results are consistent with the Reproductive Value-Stimulus Value hypothesis. They also demonstrate that Reed Warblers can tell Cuckoos from Sparrowhawks, as can many non-host species. The close resemblance of these two species is often suggested to be mimicry of the Sparrowhawk by the Cuckoo but, if this is so, it is not successful. Alternatively, the similarity could be mimicry to reduce predation on the Cuckoos themselves, a chance resemblance, or due to similar selective forces acting on both species, as each would presumably benefit from reduced conspicuousness.     

Intraspecific brood-parasitism and dispersal in fledgling Sparrowhawks Accipiter nisus

The progeny of early-nesting Sparrowhawks Accipiter nisus have a higher survival rate than those of late nesters. To ascertain the reasons for greater survival in early-season Sparrowhawk fledglings, I studied post-fledging dispersal behaviour in this species by direct observations and radio-tracking during 3 years in Rockingham Forest, Northamptonshire, U.K.
Post-fledging brood-parasitism was found among early-dispersed young of both sexes.
Early-dispersed young spent up to 6 days being fed by the parents of other fledged, but still dependent, broods, as far as 6 km from their own nests.
Three broods were provided with supplementary food for 4 weeks, starting 1 week before expected dispersal. These young dispersed when significantly older than young from control broods. In both groups, males dispersed, on average, 3–4 days earlier than females. The ultimate dispersal age of young in control broods was negatively correlated with their rate of mass gain during the nestling period. Unlike the young of the control broods, fledglings in broods with augmented food were usually silent.
These findings offer an explanation for why Sparrowhawk young that disperse early in the season survive better than those which disperse late.     

Phylogeography,Population Structure,and Conservation of the Javan Gibbon (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Hylobates moloch</Emphasis>)

An understanding of phylogeography and population genetics is needed for a comprehensive long-term conservation management strategy. The Javan gibbon (Hylobates moloch), an Endangered species endemic to the island of Java, has been protected since 1924 but is threatened by ongoing habitat loss, habitat degradation, and the wildlife trade. We studied the phylogeography and population genetic structure of the Javan gibbon, to define the number of Evolutionary Significant Units (ESUs) in the species, and the population genetic structure in each ESU. We sampled 47 individuals, analyzing 35 for variation in mitochondrial DNA control region, 41 for variation in 8 nuclear DNA microsatellites, and 13 for variation in 45 nuclear DNA single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs). We found support for two ESUs across the species range: a western ESU, extending from Ujung Kulon to Gunung Gede–Pangrango, and a central ESU, extending from Gunung Masigit–Simpang–Tilu to Gunung Slamet. Analysis of molecular variance and population structure analysis indicate significant structuring in the western ESU between Ujung Kulon and Gunung Halimun–Salak–Gede–Pangrango, and little to moderate structure in the central ESU, underscoring the importance of conserving as many populations as possible to preserve the full array of genetic diversity in this species. Our results will inform future more comprehensive population genetic surveys and the conservation genetic management of the Javan gibbon. This study demonstrates the importance of genetics when designing conservation management strategies for endangered primates.     

The critical role of local refugia in postglacial colonization of Chinese pine: joint inferences from DNA analyses,pollen records,and species distribution modeling

The importance of long‐distance migration from low to high latitudes relative to local spread from northern refugia after the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM) remains a focus of debate for many temperate tree species. We assessed the dynamics of Chinese pine Pinus tabulaeformis, a widespread species endemic to northern China, since the LGM by integrating cytoplasmic DNA data, mapped pollen records and ecological niche modeling. Genetic variation among 544 individuals from 50 populations spanning the entire natural species range revealed eight genetic clusters with distinct geographic distribution, indicating glacial lineages likely originating from multiple local microrefugia. Palynological evidence suggested that the northernmost part of the natural distribution originated from local postglacial spread. Niche modeling indicated high probability of the species being present in the area of the Loess Plateau and coastal areas north of the Yangtze River during the LGM. The three lines of evidence jointly suggest that the species persisted through the last glaciation in the mountains surrounding the Loess Plateau of northern China and that the current distribution of the species originated primarily from the spread of local refugial populations, instead of long‐distance migration. These results cast doubt on the notion that Chinese pine migrated from areas south of the Yangtze River and underscore the importance of northern refugia.     

Ice-age isolation,postglacial hybridization and recent population bottlenecks shape the genetic structure of Meum athamanticum in Central Europe

Phylogeographic analyses can help to reveal the refugial structure of plants during and after the ice ages, but the detailed history of regional refugial isolation and differentiation in Central Europe is still poorly understood. A recent study of Meum athamanticum in its total range of occurrences revealed persistence of this temperate montane plant species in Central Europe north of the Alps, without going into details. We therefore aimed to study differentiation and migration processes of this plant species in more detail throughout Central Europe. We used high resolution amplified fragment length polymorphisms (AFLP) markers and analyzed 210 plant individuals of 14 Central European populations with three pairs of primer combinations (128 loci, 111 of which polymorphic). The data show genetic differentiation and varying levels of molecular diversity within populations and groups of populations. Altogether, the studied populations did not show a gradient in molecular variation along presumptive postglacial migration routes across Central Europe. Rather, they reveal a genetic division into seven major groups. Four of them are characterised by high genetic diversity, private fragments and higher than average number of rare and sparse fragments, leading to the assumption that they are descendants of independent populations which survived in glacial refugia. In combination with information from paleoclimate and paleovegetation, it is likely that microclimatically favoured habitats at (i) the eastern flank of the Black Forest, (ii) the southern margin of the Cologne basin, (iii) the foothills of the Erzgebirge, and (iv) the foothills of the Jura Mountains acted as sources for the postglacial recolonisation of this species to the other mountains of Central Europe. As some of the populations analysed show intermixed gene-pools (i.e. including genetic information from different groups) and partly have exceptionally high genetic diversity, but no private and only relatively few rare or sparse fragments, they might represent contact zones. On the other hand, genetic pauperization and isolation of two other populations in connection with extremely small population sizes and unfavourable habitat conditions seem to reflect recent bottlenecks. Consequently, the genetic structure of M. athamanticum in Central Europe is shaped by (i) extra-Mediterranean glacial refugia in situ, (ii) following postglacial hybridization along emerging contact zones and (iii) genetic bottlenecks in thereafter isolated small populations. All results provide evidences for small scale migration of the species between Central European valleys and surrounding highlands. Therefore, our study provides molecular evidence for both climate dependent wide ranging periglacial tabula rasa, but some small refugia in locally buffered areas. We hereby show that the environmental heterogeneity of cold stage landscapes in Central Europe is generally underestimated.     

Human‐mediated introduction of introgressed deer across Wallace's line: Historical biogeography of Rusa unicolor and R. timorensis

In this study we compared the phylogeographic patterns of two Rusa species, Rusa unicolor and Rusa timorensis, in order to understand what drove and maintained differentiation between these two geographically and genetically close species and investigated the route of introduction of individuals to the islands outside of the Sunda Shelf. We analyzed full mitogenomes from 56 archival samples from the distribution areas of the two species and 18 microsatellite loci in a subset of 16 individuals to generate the phylogeographic patterns of both species. Bayesian inference with fossil calibration was used to estimate the age of each species and major divergence events. Our results indicated that the split between the two species took place during the Pleistocene, ~1.8 Mya, possibly driven by adaptations of R. timorensis to the drier climate found on Java compared to the other islands of Sundaland. Although both markers identified two well‐differentiated clades, there was a largely discrepant pattern between mitochondrial and nuclear markers. While nDNA separated the individuals into the two species, largely in agreement with their museum label, mtDNA revealed that all R. timorensis sampled to the east of the Sunda shelf carried haplotypes from R. unicolor and one Rusa unicolor from South Sumatra carried a R. timorensis haplotype. Our results show that hybridization occurred between these two sister species in Sundaland during the Late Pleistocene and resulted in human‐mediated introduction of hybrid descendants in all islands outside Sundaland.     

How important were stepping stones in the colonization of Krakatau?

In theory, one factor determining the rate and nature of the assembly of island biotas is the presence or absence of stepping stone islands, yet no field studies have demonstrated stepping stone function in practice. Krakatau, in Sunda Strait, is about equidistant from Java and Sumatra. Sebesi lies about half way between Krakatau and Sumatra, but no island intervenes between Krakatau and the nearest coast of Java. We assess the evidence that Sebesi has acted as an important stepping stone for Krakatau's recolonization since the devastating 1883 volcanic eruption. About a quarter of Krakatau's resident land birds, two-fifths of its reptiles, bats and land molluscs, and about two-thirds of its termites, pteridophytes, butterflies and spermatophytes are unknown on Sebesi, evidently having colonized without stepping stone involvement. Identifiable Sumatran taxa do not outnumber identifiable Javan ones on Krakatau, nor do historical distribution records indicate movement from Sebesi to Krakatau in animal groups. Krakatau's biota is not a subset of Sebesi's in predominantly anemochorous or thallassochorous plant groups, butterflies, reptiles or bats, and is only marginally so in termites. It is a subset in predominantly zoochorous spermatophyte groups, except Ficus species, and in birds and land molluscs. Comparison with a weaker stepping stone candidate, Panaitan, provides no evidence for a stepping stone role for Sebesi in butterflies or termites. We discuss the dispersal and establishment constraints on colonization by the groups involved, and conclude that, overall, Sebesi had little impact as a stepping stone. Instead, it is more probable that divergence of the environments of the two islands has led to an increasingly independent recolonization of Krakatau.  © 2002 The Linnean Society of London, Biological Journal of the Linnean Society , 2002, 77 , 275–317.     

Conservation genomics reveals possible illegal trade routes and admixture across pangolin lineages in Southeast Asia

The use of genome-wide genetic markers is an emerging approach for informing evidence-based management decisions for highly threatened species. Pangolins are the most heavily trafficked mammals across illegal wildlife trade globally, but critically endangered Sunda pangolins (Manis javanica) have not been widely studied in insular Southeast Asia. We used?>?12,000 single nucleotide polymorphic markers (SNPs) to assign pangolin seizures from illegal trade of unknown origin to possible geographic sources via genetic clustering with pangolins of known origin. Our SNPs reveal three previously unrecognized genetic lineages of Sunda pangolins, possibly from Borneo, Java and Singapore/Sumatra. The seizure assignments suggest the majority of pangolins were traded from Borneo to Java. Using mitochondrial markers did not provide the same resolution of pangolin lineages, and to explore if admixture might explain these differences, we applied sophisticated tests of introgression using?>?2000 SNPs to investigate secondary gene flow between each of the three Sunda pangolin lineages. It is possible the admixture which we discovered is due to human-mediated movements of pangolins. Our findings impact a range of conservation actions, including tracing patterns of trade, repatriation of rescue animals, and conservation breeding. In order to conserve genetic diversity, we suggest that, pending further research, each pangolin lineage should as a precaution be protected and managed as an evolutionarily distinct conservation unit.     

Genomic diversity,population structure,and migration following rapid range expansion in the Balsam Poplar,Populus balsamifera

Rapid range expansions can cause pervasive changes in the genetic diversity and structure of populations. The postglacial history of the Balsam Poplar, Populus balsamifera, involved the colonization of most of northern North America, an area largely covered by continental ice sheets during the last glacial maximum. To characterize how this expansion shaped genomic diversity within and among populations, we developed 412 SNP markers that we assayed for a range‐wide sample of 474 individuals sampled from 34 populations. We complemented the SNP data set with DNA sequence data from 11 nuclear loci from 94 individuals, and used coalescent analyses to estimate historical population size, demographic growth, and patterns of migration. Bayesian clustering identified three geographically separated demes found in the Northern, Central, and Eastern portions of the species’ range. These demes varied significantly in nucleotide diversity, the abundance of private polymorphisms, and population substructure. Most measures supported the Central deme as descended from the primary refuge of diversity. Both SNPs and sequence data suggested recent population growth, and coalescent analyses of historical migration suggested a massive expansion from the Centre to the North and East. Collectively, these data demonstrate the strong influence that range expansions exert on genomic diversity, both within local populations and across the range. Our results suggest that an in‐depth knowledge of nucleotide diversity following expansion requires sampling within multiple populations, and highlight the utility of combining insights from different data types in population genomic studies.     

Haplotype variation of relevance to global and European phylogeography in Sarmentypnum exannulatum (Bryophyta: Calliergonaceae)

Abstract

Haplotype variation is explored for Sarmentypnum exannulatum (Schimp.) Hedenäs, based on the nuclear ITS, and the chloroplast trnL–trnF, rpl16 and tRNA-Gly in 179 specimens (176 for chloroplast markers). The focus is Europe (124 samples), and especially Scandinavia (79), but most regions of the species' distribution area except northern Eurasia were sampled. Haplotype variation appears greater in Scandinavia than in Central Europe, with five of the European haplotype groups found only in Scandinavia compared with one unique to Central Europe. The Central European haplotype group probably survived the glaciations in one or several of the well-known refugia of the northern Mediterranean, but this seems unlikely for the Scandinavian haplotypes. The latter could have survived in northern refugia or immigrated from the east or north-east. On a global scale, several haplotype groups have restricted distributions, which could be due to sparse sampling in some regions, or the evolution or extinction of haplotypes. Some haplotypes were perfectly bipolar, whereas the species as a whole is imperfectly bipolar. These were absent from more southern parts of the northern temperate zone and from the sampled tropical mountains. It thus seems unlikely that representatives of these haplotypes dispersed from north to south (or vice versa) by stepwise migration.     

The role of topography in structuring the demographic history of the pine processionary moth,Thaumetopoea pityocampa (Lepidoptera: Notodontidae)

Aim We investigated the Quaternary history of the pine processionary moth, Thaumetopoea pityocampa, an oligophagous insect currently expanding its range. We tested the potential role played by mountain ranges during the post‐glacial recolonization of western Europe. Location Western Europe, with a focus on the Pyrenees, Massif Central and western Alps. Methods Maternal genetic structure was investigated using a fragment of the mitochondrial cytochrome c oxidase subunit I (COI) gene. We analysed 412 individuals from 61 locations and performed maximum likelihood and maximum parsimony phylogenetic analyses and hierarchical analysis of molecular variance, and we investigated signs of past expansion. Results A strong phylogeographic pattern was found, with two deeply divergent clades. Surprisingly, these clades were not separated by the Pyrenees but rather were distributed from western to central Iberia and from eastern Iberia to the Italian Peninsula, respectively. This latter group consisted of three shallowly divergent lineages that exhibited strong geographic structure and independent population expansions. The three identified lineages occurred: (1) on both sides of the Pyrenean range, with more genetically diverse populations in the east, (2) from eastern Iberia to western France, with a higher genetic diversity in the south, and (3) from the western Massif Central to Italy. Admixture areas were found at the foot of the Pyrenees and Massif Central. Main conclusions The identified genetic lineages were geographically structured, but surprisingly the unsuitable high‐elevation areas of the main mountainous ranges were not responsible for the spatial separation of genetic groups. Rather than acting as barriers to dispersal, mountains appear to have served as refugia during the Pleistocene glaciations, and current distributions largely reflect expansion from these bottlenecked refugial populations. The western and central Iberian clade did not contribute to the northward post‐glacial recolonization of Europe, yet its northern limit does not correspond to the Pyrenees. The different contributions of the identified refugia to post‐glacial expansion might be explained by differences in host plant species richness. For example, the Pyrenean lineage could have been trapped elevationally by tracking montane pines, while the eastern Iberian lineage could have expanded latitudinally by tracking thermophilic lowland pine species.     

Multiple-brooding in birds of prey: South African Black Sparrowhawks Accipiter melanoleucus extend the boundaries

Multiple-brooding (raising more than one brood of young in quick succession) occurs infrequently in raptors and is generally restricted to either smaller species with shorter nesting periods, co-operative breeders or species capable of capitalizing on conditions of prolonged food abundance whenever they occur. This paper presents the first recorded cases of multiple-brooding in the Black Sparrowhawk Accipiter melanoleucus from two distinct locales in South Africa. In the Western Cape (Cape Peninsula), four attempts to multiple-brood were recorded in four different years, involving three distinct pairs of birds, and in KwaZulu–Natal (Eshowe), three distinct pairs of Sparrowhawks successfully multiple-brooded on several occasions over a 5-year study period. These results establish the Black Sparrowhawk as one of only two relatively large, monogamous raptor species, and the only specialist bird-eating raptor, in which multiple-brooding has been recorded with any frequency . The species' capacity to thrive in human-modified environments (i.e. alien plantations) and particularly to exploit associated foraging opportunities (e.g. high densities of doves and pigeons in suburban areas) may, at least partly, account for the instances of multiple-brooding reported here. We suggest that biologists be more vigilant for cases of multiple-brooding in raptors, as it is possible that this trait is more common than originally thought and has previously been overlooked.     

The species of Thalerosphyrus Eaton, 1881 (Insecta,Ephemeroptera, Heptageniidae,Ecdyonurinae) in Java and Sumatra,with some comments on the diversity of the genus in the Oriental Realm

Three species belonging to the genus Thalerosphyrus Eaton, 1881 are reported from Java and Sumatra. The nymphs of Th. determinatus (Walker, 1853) from Java, Th. sinuosus (Navás, 1933) from Java and Sumatra and Th. lamuriensis Sartori, 2014 from Sumatra are redescribed. The egg morphology of the three species is also presented for the first time. A key to the nymphs is proposed. General considerations on the composition of the genus Thalerosphyrus in the Oriental Realm are given. The distribution of the genus is greatly expended, and currently ranges over the Himalaya and Sumbawa in the Sunda Islands.     

Song Functions in Nonduetting Gibbons: Evidence from Playback Experiments on Javan Gibbons (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Hylobates moloch</Emphasis>)

Territorial, pair-living primates usually perform long-distance calls as duets in which adult males and females coordinate their calls. Previous studies using playback experiments have shown that gibbon duets convey information about the status of the caller (location, familiarity, sex of the caller, and paired status) and gibbons use this information to respond to achieve several nonmutually exclusive functions, including intragroup contact, territorial defense, and pair-bond advertisement and strengthening. However, not all pair-living gibbons duet, and it is unclear whether the same results should be expected in nonduetting species. We conducted song playback experiments (N = 47 trials) to test hypotheses about song functions in nonduetting gibbons on two groups of wild Javan gibbons (Hylobates moloch) in the Gunung Halimun-Salak National Park, Indonesia. Javan gibbons initiated movement toward the speaker more quickly in response to songs broadcast in the center of the territory, stranger songs, and songs of unpaired individuals than to songs at the border, neighbor songs, and songs from paired individuals. These results suggest that Javan gibbons can localize songs, and that Javan gibbon songs transmit information about the identity and paired status of the caller. Our results imply that Javan gibbon solo songs are likely to function for territorial defense and pair-bond advertisement like duets in other primates.     

Identification of individual adult female Javan lutungs (Trachypithecus auratus sondaicus) by using patterns of dark pigmentation in the pubic area

In a series of field surveys of wild Javan lutungs (Trachypithecus auratus sondaicus) conducted at Pangandaran Nature Reserve in West Java, Indonesia, from 2011 to 2012, we tried to use a method of individual identification by using individual-specific patterns of dark pigmentation in the pubic area. During the 2011 dry season, we used a digital SLR camera with a 400-mm telephoto lens to photograph the pubic area of each individual of a habituated group. These photographs were the basis for identifying 14 different adult females. During the rainy season of 2011 and the dry season of 2012, we checked the presence/absence of each of the identified individuals and found that these patterns were stable, at least during our study period. We found that two adult females and one adult female disappeared from the subject group between the first and second and between the second and third surveys, respectively, and that one adult female gave birth between the first and second surveys, but the infant had disappeared from the group between the second and third surveys. We could not confirm the validity of the method for juvenile females because of the dense white hair in their pubic areas and the fact that few individuals had clear patterns. Furthermore, we could not use this method for males because of the lack of pigmentation in the pubic area. As patterns of pigmentation in the pubic area are known to be present in other Trachypithecus species, our method can be useful for identification of individual adult females of these species, on which few individual-based behavioral studies have been conducted. Collecting individual-based behavioral data would enable us to track the presence of individuals in groups or movements between groups; determine the effects of social rank and age on within-group competition and copulation; and examine population data.     

Changes in egg shell characteristics of the Sparrowhawk (Accipiter nisus) and Peregrine (Falco peregrinus) associated with exposure to environmental pollutants during recent decades

In Britain since the late 1940s, the Sparrowhawk ( Accipiter nisus ) and Peregrine (Falco peregrinus) have laid eggs with unusually thin shells. DDT and its metabolites have been blamed. This paper reports how various properties of modern shells differ from those of older shells of normal thickness.
For the shells of both species, there were roughly proportional reductions in thickness of the two main component layers, the mammillary and palisade layers, suggesting that thin shells resulted from a decreased rate of deposition. In addition, in modern Sparrowhawk shells, the resistant surface layer was especially deficient perhaps due to a further reduction in deposition rate or to slight premature termination. Shell thinning was associated with a proportionately greater decrease in shell strength. For the Peregrine, porosity, measured as the rate of passage of water vapour, was lower for the thin shells than for normal shells. This difference could not be explained by a change in the area of the pore channels, since the modern shells did not have fewer pores and the pore channels were the same size and shape in the two samples of shells. However, in the thin shells of both species, mammillae height increased relative to mammillary layer thickness, and in the Peregrine shells the extent of this increase was related to the change in porosity.     

Population affinities of the asiatic cobra (Naja naja) species complex in south-east Asia: reliability and random resampling

The population systematics of the cobras of the genus Naja in southern Thailand, Malaysia and Indonesia are investigated, using multivariate analysis of a large number of morphological characters. These populations are found to constitute three distinct groups: a northern form, which occurs in Thailand and northern Peninsular Malaysia; an equatorial form, which occurs in southern Thailand, Peninsular Malaysia, Sumatra and Borneo; and a southern form, which occurs on Java and the Lesser Sunda Islands. The first two forms are sympatric in northern Peninsular Malaysia and southern Thailand, and therefore constitute separate species. This is of importance for the treatment of snakebite in the region. The distribution of the three forms can be related both to present ecological conditions and to Pleistocene geological and climatic events. The reliability of the results is demonstrated by the relationship between character number and congruence of patterns of geographic variation, investigated by random resampling. The pattern of geographic variation within two of the three main forms is investigated and related to current ecological conditions and Pleistocene events.