Genetic biodiversity impacts of silvicultural practices and phenotypic selection in white spruce

Forest-management practices relying on natural and/or artificial regeneration and domestication can significantly affect genetic diversity. The aim of the present study was to determine and compare the genetic diversity of the pristine old-growth, naturally and artificially regenerated and phenotypically selected white spruce, and to determine the genetic-diversity impacts of silvicultural practices. Genetic diversity was determined and compared for 51 random amplified polymorphic DNA (RAPD) loci for the adjacent natural old-growth, naturally regenerated and planted white spruce stands at each of four sites, one oldest plantation and open-pollinated progeny of 30 phenotypic tree-improvement selections of white spruce from Saskatchewan. Each of the 420 white spruce individuals sampled was genetically unique. The old-growth stands had the highest, and the phenotypic selections the lowest, genetic diversity. The genetic diversity of the natural regeneration was comparable to that of the old-growth, whereas the genetic diversity of the plantations was comparable to that of the selections. On average, the genetic diversity of the old-growth and natural regeneration was significantly higher than that of the plantations and selections. The mean percent of loci polymorphic, the number of alleles per locus, the effective number of alleles per locus, heterozygosity, and Shannon’s index was 88.7, 83.8, 72.2 and 66.7; 1.89, 1.84, 1.72 and 1.67; 1.69, 1.62, 1.53 and 1.46; 0.381, 0.349, 0.297 and 0.259; and 0.548, 0.506, 0.431 and 0.381 for the old-growth stands; natural regeneration; plantations; and open-pollinated progeny of selections; respectively. Reduced genetic diversity in the plantations and selections suggest that their genetic base is relatively narrow, and should therefore be broadened in order to maintain genetic diversity, and sustainably manage and conserve white spruce genetic resources. Received: 12 March 1999 / Accepted: 17 March 1999     

马尾松桐棉种源天然群体遗传结构研究

广西桐棉是我国重要的马尾松优良种源区,该种源分布面积达1.56万hm2,马尾松遗传资源优质且丰富,但近30年来该地区的马尾松天然资源受到较为严重的破坏。为了解该地马尾松天然种质资源的遗传多样性现状,该研究利用SSR分子标记分析了桐棉马尾松的群体遗传结构。结果表明：16对 SSR 引物在285个样本中共检测到53个等位基因,多态位点百分率为100％。桐棉群体的平均等位基因数( N a )、平均有效等位基因数(Ne)、Shannon 多样性指数(I)、观测杂合度(Ho)、期望杂合度(He)分别为3.31、1.68、0.64、0.35和0.36,可见桐棉群体现今仍具有较高的遗传多样性。群体的遗传分化系数(GST)为0.049,固定指数(FST)为0.072,基因流(Nm)为3.21。这说明桐棉群体内基因型分布接近于平衡状态,未出现明显的杂合子过剩或不足,遗传变异主要存在于林分内,林分间不存在明显的遗传分化,群体内基因交流顺畅。同时,处于桐棉种源核心区域的4个林分遗传多样性水平显著低于核心区外围的3个林分,说明桐棉种源核心区域遭到更为严重的人为破坏。为了保障该处马尾松天然群体的正常更新及自然遗传改良能力应重视对马尾松天然林的科学管护。一方面通过遗传资源选择收集,建立大规模种质资源库;另一方面,对于桐棉种源这类分布面积大、利用价值高、目前所受破坏尚不严重的天然群体,应建立专门的自然保护区,严禁盗伐、主伐、非法采割松脂及过度采种。该研究结果对于马尾松天然种质资源的研究与保护具有重要参考价值。     

Effects of Logging on the Genetic Diversity of Quercus tiaoloshanica Chun et Ko in a Tropical Montane Forest of Hainan Island, Southern China

Quercus tiaoloshanica Chun et Ko, which has a narrow range of distribution, is one of the important endemic species of the tropical montane rain forest on Hainan Island, southern China. Long-term logging and habitat destruction have resulted in population decline and distribution retreat of Q. tiaoloshanica. To determine the impact of logging on the genetic diversity of Q. tiaoloshanica, the authors investigated the genetic structures using amplified fragment length polymorphism markers in four regenerated stands after logging and in one unlogged stand. Compared with the unlogged stand, the effective number of alleles per locus dropped by 1.0% in selective logging stands and by 2.0% in clear logging stands, corresponding to reductions of 3.8% and 5.2%, respectively, in mean Nei＇s gene diversity and 2.9% and 3.5%, respectively, in mean Shannon diversity index. No substantial genetic erosion was detected in any of the regenerated stands owing to the high tree density and high heterogeneity of the Q. tiaoloshanica stands investigated. Meanwhile, there was no natural regeneration of the species observed in a Dacrydium pierrei Hickel plantation 700 m away from the regenerated stands, suggesting the limited ability of seed dispersal of Q. tiaoloshanica. Clear logging should be undertaken cautiously because the total number of plant species dropped by 15.2% in the clear-logged stands compared with the unlogged stand. To conserve the genetic diversity of this species, as well as the plant biodiversity of tropical forests, the habitats of Q. tiaoloshanica should be protected against exploitation in terms of agricultural or other forms of land use, and some mature trees should be preserved as seed sources to maintain an adequate regeneration base for this species in the management of logging.     

Reproductive and genetic characteristics of rare,disjunct pitch pine populations at the northern limits of its range in Canada

Pitch pine, Pinus rigida Mill., is a rare species in Canada, existing as a disjunct population in the St. Lawrence River Valley in eastern Ontario and two northern outlier stands in southern Quebec along Canada's southern border with the United States. Reproductive and genetic characteristics of these small, scattered stands were investigated to develop a foundation for management and restoration in the event of range expansion northwards under anticipated climate warming. Seed yields and seed quality appear to be comparable to other eastern conifers, and to pitch pine at the center of its geographic range. For seed and seedling growth traits, most of the variation was attributable to differences among trees within stands and, to a lesser extent, among stands within a population; whereas the population effect was non-significant. For reproductive traits, such as numbers of filled and empty seeds per cone, reproductive efficiency, and inbreeding estimates, high levels of variation (ranging from 26% to 33%) were found among stands, suggesting that stand structural features, such as stand size and tree density within stands, play an important role in pollination environment and overall reproductive success. Estimates of genetic diversity at 32 allozyme gene loci indicate that these small, isolated stands have maintained relatively high levels of genetic diversity compared with populations at the center of its geographic range, and also relative to other widely dispersed eastern conifers. The relatively high levels of viable seed production and genetic diversity in native pitch pine populations indicate that native Canadian populations may be suitable seed sources for species restoration and range expansion in Canada.     

Effects of reforestation methods on genetic diversity of lodgepole pine: an assessment using microsatellite and randomly amplified polymorphic DNA markers

 We examined the effects of different methods of forest regeneration on the genetic diversity of lodgepole pine (Pinus contorta var ‘latifolia’) using two different DNA-based molecular markers [randomly amplified polymorphic DNA (RAPDs) and microsatellites or simple sequence repeats (SSRs)]. Genetic diversity was estimated for 30 individuals in each of four populations for the following three stand types: (1) mature lodgepole pine (>100 years); (2) 20- to 30-year-old harvested stands left for natural regeneration; (3) 20- to 30-year-old planted stands (4 stands of each type); and one group of 30 operationally produced seedlings. There was no significant effect of stand type on expected heterozygosity, although allelic richness and diversity were much higher for SSRs than for RAPDs. Expected heterozygosity ranged from 0.39 to 0.47 based on RAPDs and from 0.67 to 0.77 based on SSRs. The number of alleles per locus for SSRs ranged from 3 to 34 (mean 21.0), and there was a significant relationship between sequence repeat length and the number of alleles at a locus. Both marker types showed that over 94% of the variation was contained within the populations and that the naturally regenerated stands sampled had lower (not significant) expected heterozygosity than the planted or unharvested stands. The group of seedlings (assessed by RAPDs only) had expected heterozygosity and allele frequencies similar to those of the unharvested stands. Genetic distance measures were higher than obtained previously in the species using isozyme markers. There was no correlation between the two marker types for pair-wise genetic distances based on populations analyzed by both methods. Pair-wise genetic distance measures and an ordination of allele frequencies for both marker types showed little effect of geographic location or stand type on genetic similarity. Received: 18 August 1998 / Accepted: 17 September 1998     

Soil carbon fluxes and stocks in a Great Lakes forest chronosequence

We measured soil respiration and soil carbon stocks, as well as micrometeorological variables in a chronosequence of deciduous forests in Wisconsin and Michigan. The chronosequence consisted of (1) four recently disturbed stands, including a clearcut and repeatedly burned stand (burn), a blowdown and partial salvage stand (blowdown), a clearcut with sparse residual overstory (residual), and a regenerated stand from a complete clearcut (regenerated); (2) four young aspen ( Populus tremuloides ) stands in average age of 10 years; (3) four intermediate aspen stands in average age of 26 years; (4) four mature northern hardwood stands in average age of 73 years; and (5) an old-growth stand approximately 350-years old. We fitted site-based models and used continuous measurements of soil temperature to estimate cumulative soil respiration for the growing season of 2005 (days 133–295). Cumulative soil respiration in the growing season was estimated to be 513, 680, 747, 747, 794, 802, 690, and 571 g C m⁻² in the burn, blowdown, residual, regenerated, young, intermediate, mature, and old-growth stands, respectively. The measured apparent temperature sensitivity of soil respiration was the highest in the regenerated stand, and declined from the young stands to the old-growth. Both, cumulative soil respiration and basal soil respiration at 10 °C, increased during stand establishment, peaked at intermediate age, and then decreased with age. Total soil carbon at 0–60 cm initially decreased after harvest, and increased after stands established. The old-growth stand accumulated carbon in deep layers of soils, but not in the surface soils. Our study suggests a complexity of long-term soil carbon dynamics, both in vertical depth and temporal scale.     

Genetic diversity impacts of forest fires,forest harvesting,and alternative reforestation practices in black spruce (Picea mariana)

Benchmarks were established for genetic diversity inherent in natural mature populations, and genetic diversity impacts of forest fires, clearcut harvesting and alternative natural and artificial silvicultural regeneration practices were determined in black spruce (Picea mariana). Allozymes of 32 loci were used to determine and compare genetic diversity and genetic relationships of adjacent or nearby four stand types: post-fire natural mature (FNM), post-fire natural young (FNR), post-harvest natural young (HNR) and post-harvest plantation (PLT), of black spruce at each of the four study sites located in two ecoregions in Manitoba: Ecoregion 90-Lac Seul Upland (Eastern) and Ecoregion 158 - Mid-Boreal Lowland (Northern). Both allelic- and genotypic-based genetic diversity parameters, as well as latent genetic potential, were determined. Black spruce populations showed typical moderate to high levels of allozyme genetic diversity. The mean genetic diversity parameters over the 16 black spruce populations sampled were as follows: percent loci polymorphic - 67%, mean number of alleles per locus - 2.52, effective number of alleles per locus - 1.70, observed heterozygosity - 0.222, expected heterozygosity - 0.308, mean number of observed genotypes per locus - 3.65, mean number of expected genotypes per locus - 5.03, genotype additivity (observed) - 116.8, genotype additivity (expected) - 161, genotype multiplicity (observed) - 6.16 x 10(15), genotype multiplicity (expected) - 2.06 x 10(19) and latent genetic potential - 26.12. The four stand types (FNM, FNR, HNR and PLT) had comparable and statistically similar genetic diversity levels at each of the four study sites as well as overall. No significant differences in black spruce genetic diversity levels were observed between the two ecoregions in Manitoba, as well as between the post-fire and post-harvest regenerated stands. No particular order of genetic relatedness among the four stand types was observed. Black spruce populations showed some sort of site-related differentiation in their genetic constitution. Allelic heterogeneity and genetic distances among populations within stand types and among four stand types suggest that the genetic diversity was maintained at the landscape level in black spruce. The results of our study demonstrate that forest fires and currently used clearcut harvesting, and alternative natural and artificial silvicultural regeneration practices, do not adversely affect genetic diversity in black spruce, and that the genetic diversity effects of clearcut harvesting are not significantly different from those due to forest fires in black spruce.     

Genetic Divergence and Signatures of Natural Selection in Marginal Populations of a Keystone,Long-Lived Conifer,Eastern White Pine (Pinus strobus) from Northern Ontario

Marginal populations are expected to provide the frontiers for adaptation, evolution and range shifts of plant species under the anticipated climate change conditions. Marginal populations are predicted to show genetic divergence from central populations due to their isolation, and divergent natural selection and genetic drift operating therein. Marginal populations are also expected to have lower genetic diversity and effective population size (N _e) and higher genetic differentiation than central populations. We tested these hypotheses using eastern white pine (Pinus strobus) as a model for keystone, long-lived widely-distributed plants. All 614 eastern white pine trees, in a complete census of two populations each of marginal old-growth, central old-growth, and central second-growth, were genotyped at 11 microsatellite loci. The central populations had significantly higher allelic and genotypic diversity, latent genetic potential (LGP) and N _e than the marginal populations. However, heterozygosity and fixation index were similar between them. The marginal populations were genetically diverged from the central populations. Model testing suggested predominant north to south gene flow in the study area with curtailed gene flow to northern marginal populations. Signatures of natural selection were detected at three loci in the marginal populations; two showing divergent selection with directional change in allele frequencies, and one balancing selection. Contrary to the general belief, no significant differences were observed in genetic diversity, differentiation, LGP, and N _e between old-growth and second-growth populations. Our study provides information on the dynamics of migration, genetic drift and selection in central versus marginal populations of a keystone long-lived plant species and has broad evolutionary, conservation and adaptation significance.     

Genetic structure inside a declining red oak community in old-growth forest

Problems with oak regeneration have been documented in the last 50 years at numerous sites in the Midwestern United States. We applied nuclear microsatellites to examine the demographic and fine-scale spatial genetic structure of red oaks in two old-growth stands in Indiana. Oaks in one stand have declined in numbers over the past several decades whereas oaks in the other, smaller stand have increased. Large amounts of genetic variation were maintained within stands, and there was slight but significant differentiation among stands. There was significant but weak isolation by distance genetic structure within the large stand, likely reflecting family structure. No significant differences exist in allele frequencies or in levels of genetic diversity between cohorts that remain well represented within each stand, even between medium-sized adults and those antedating European settlement of the area. However, a virtual absence of smaller size classes in the forest interior of the large stand represents the early stages of a genetic bottleneck in what had been the core habitat of this stand. Whether future generations of this old-growth stand will retain the present genetic character depends on the oaks regenerating at the forest margins, absent any major changes in disturbance regimes. Similar demographic and genetic dynamics are likely occurring in a large number of remnant oak forests across the Midwest.     

Extensive pollen immigration and no evidence of disrupted mating patterns or reproduction in a highly fragmented holm oak stand

Aims Forest fragmentation and reduced tree population densities can potentially have negative impacts on mating patterns, offspring genetic diversity and reproductive performance. The aim of the present study is to test these hypotheses comparing an extremely fragmented, low tree density (~0.02 trees/ha) holm oak (Quercus ilex L.) stand from Central Spain with a nearby high tree density stand (~50 trees/ha).Methods We genotyped adult trees and seeds from the low-density stand (436 seeds from 15 families) and the high-density stand (404 seeds from 11 families) using nine microsatellite markers. With these data, we performed paternity analyses, determined pollen flow, mating patterns and pollen pool structure, and estimated progeny genetic diversity in both stands. We also studied seed set and production and performed a pollen supplementation experiment to determine whether reduced tree density has limited foreign pollen availability.Important findings We have found extensive pollen immigration (>75%) into the low tree density stand and Monte Carlo simulations revealed that pollen moves larger distances than expected from null models of random dispersal. Mating patterns and differentiation of pollen pools were similar in the high-density stand and the low-density stand but we found higher inter-annual differentiation of pollen pools in the former. Progeny genetic diversity and self-fertilization rates did not differ between the low-density stand and the high-density stand. Seed set rates were significantly lower in the low-density stand than in the high-density stand and experimental cross-pollen supplementation evidenced that foreign pollen availability is indeed a limiting factor in the former. However, seed crops did not differ between the low-density stand and the high-density stand, indicating that limitation of foreign pollen is not likely to be of great concern in terms of reduced seed production and potential recruitment. Poor forest regeneration due to other ecological and human factors is probably a more important threat for the persistence of fragmented and low tree density stands than reduced pollen flow and only extremely small and isolated tree populations would be expected to suffer severe loss of genetic diversity in the long term.     

Recruitment patterns and northward tree migration through gap dynamics in an old-growth white pine forest in northern Ontario

Decreases in abundances and declines in growth of eastern white pine over the past century due mainly to human activities have resulted in few large intact old-growth white pine forests in Ontario. These stands may be vulnerable to replacement by deciduous species from temperate forests further south, where recruitment in canopy gap disturbances can greatly define the regeneration process. We investigated recruitment dynamics in canopy gaps of an old-growth white pine forest of Temagami, northern Ontario, Canada, the northern limit of the temperate?Cboreal ecotone. White pine, red pine, black spruce and eastern white cedar represented 85?% of the mature canopy abundance, where trees and saplings established equally in gaps and the closed canopy. Balsam fir and paper birch were more abundant in gaps, showing increases of abundance and basal area with increases in gap size representing canopy self-replacement (balsam fir) and autogenic succession (paper birch). Red maple, at its northernmost range limit, was the only species to show linear increases of abundance and basal area with increases in gap size and gap age. This result, along with adult red maples present in gaps but absent from the closed canopy, identifies the establishment of a northward migrating species in gaps as hypothesized for pine forests at the northern limit of this broad ecotone. We discuss how migration pressures, coupled with pine recruitment limitation through reduced fire frequency by regional fire suppression and predicted future increased warming of 2?C4?°C over the next century, threatens replacement of old-growth white pine forests at this latitude with northward migrating tree species found further south.     

Old-growth red spruce forests as reservoirs of genetic diversity and reproductive fitness

Old-growth forests are assumed to be potential reservoirs of genetic diversity for the dominant tree species, yet there is little empirical evidence for this assumption. Our aim was to characterize the relationship of stand traits, such as age, height and stem diameter, with the genetic and reproductive status of old-growth and older second-growth stands of red spruce (Picea rubens Sarg.) in eastern Canada. We found strong relationships between height growth (a fitness trait) and measures of genetic diversity based on allozyme analyses in red spruce. The negative relationship between height and the proportion of rare alleles suggests that high proportions of these rare alleles may be deleterious to growth performance. Latent genetic potential, however, showed a significant and positive relationship with height. Stand age was not correlated to height, but was correlated to seedling progeny height. In late-successional species such as red spruce, age and size (e.g., height and stem diameter) relationships may be strongly influenced by local stand disturbance dynamics that determine availability of light, growing space, moisture and nutrients. In larger and older stands, age appeared to provide a good surrogate measure or indicator for genetic diversity and progeny height growth. However, in smaller and more isolated populations, these age and fitness relationships may be strongly influenced by the effects of inbreeding and genetic drift. Therefore, older populations or old-growth forests may represent superior seed sources, but only if they are also of sufficient size and structure (e.g., stem density and spatial family structure) to avoid the effects of inbreeding and genetic drift. Thus, larger and older forests appear to have an important evolutionary role as reservoirs of both genetic diversity and reproductive fitness. Given the rapid environmental changes anticipated (as a result of climate change, increasing population isolation through fragmentation, or following the introduction of exotic pests and diseases) these older populations of trees may have a valuable function in maintaining the adaptive potential of tree species.     

Forest recovery after swidden cultivation across a 40-year chronosequence in the Atlantic forest of southern Bahia, Brazil

Tree species composition and structure of a 40-year chronosequence of secondary forests was compared with old-growth forests in southern Bahia, Brazil. Twelve stands were randomly selected that represented three age classes: 10, 25, and 40 year old with four replications in each class. All stands selected had been established after abandonment from swidden cultivation and were surrounded by old-growth forests. In every stand, ten 0.01-ha transects were established and all stems (≥5 cm diameter at breast height) were measured and identified. Results were compared with the dataset of two neighboring old-growth sites. Mean diameter, total height, and stand basal area increased with age. Number of trees/ha peaked in 40 year old stands. The results showed that secondary forests in this region take much more than 40 years to recover the structure of old-growth forests. In contrast, species richness recovery was rapid with a continuous accumulation of species with age in secondary forests. Species richness and diversity increased with age as did similarity between secondary stands and old-growth stands. More than half of the species found in the 40 year old stands were shared with the neighboring old-growth forests. However, species richness and diversity were higher in old growth sites.     

A Decade of Streamwater Nitrogen and Forest Dynamics after a Mountain Pine Beetle Outbreak at the Fraser Experimental Forest,Colorado

Forests of western North America are currently experiencing extensive tree mortality from a variety of bark beetle species, and insect outbreaks are projected to increase under warmer, drier climates. Unlike the abrupt biogeochemical changes typical after wildfire and timber harvesting, the outcomes of insect outbreaks are poorly understood. The mountain pine bark beetle (Dendroctonus ponderosae) began to attack lodgepole pine (Pinus contorta) at the Fraser Experimental Forest in 2002 and spread throughout the research area by 2007. We compared streamwater nitrogen (N) from 2003 through 2012 with data from the previous two decades in four watersheds with distinct forest management histories, stand structures, and responses to the beetle outbreak. Watersheds dominated by old-growth had larger trees and lost 85% of overstory pine and 44% of total basal area to bark beetles. In contrast, managed watersheds containing a mixture of second-growth (30–60 year old) and old-growth (250- to 350-year old) had higher density of subcanopy trees, smaller mean tree diameter, and lower bark beetle-induced mortality (~26% of total basal area). Streamwater nitrate concentrations were significantly higher in old-growth watersheds during the outbreak than pre-outbreak levels during snowmelt and base flow seasons. In mixed-age stands, streamwater nitrate concentrations were unaffected by the outbreak. Beetle outbreak elevated inorganic N export 43 and 74% in two old-growth watersheds though the amounts of N released in streamwater were low (0.04 and 0.15 kg N ha^?1) relative to atmospheric inputs (<2% of annual N deposition). Increased height, diameter, and foliar N of measured in residual live trees augmented demand for N, far in excess of the change in N export during the outbreak. Reallocation of soil resources released after pine mortality to overstory and understory vegetation helps explain high nutrient retention in watersheds affected by bark beetle outbreaks.     

Genotyping of mature trees of Entandrophragma cylindricum with microsatellites

We have characterized 10 microsatellite loci for the tropical tree Entandrophragma cylindricum (Sprague) Sprague (sapelli) in order to genotype individuals in forest stands for estimation of the genetic diversity of the species. We used the technique of building a (GA)n microsatellite-enriched library by capture with streptavidin-coated magnetic beads. We assessed the polymorphism of seven microsatellites in 186 mature trees in a selectively logged stand (Dimako) and an unlogged stand (Ndama), both in Cameroon. All the loci were polymorphic, and the number of alleles was high, ranging from eight to 36, with a mean of 22.1. Both stands showed the same high level of genetic diversity (mean H(E) = 0.85) and a low genetic differentiation (FST = 0.007), indicating that genetic diversity was within rather than among populations. Five and three out seven loci in Dimako and Ndama, respectively, showed a deficit of heterozygotes. The seven loci enabled more than 97% of the mature trees in each stand to be identified. It was concluded that these markers can be efficiently used for gene flow studies.     

Using simulations to optimize genetic diversity in Prunus avium seed harvests

Conservation of forest genetic resources has drawn much attention in the last decades, as it prevents negative effects of genetic erosion on adaptability potential of material used for afforestation. According to the German Act on Forest Reproductive Material, seed harvesting must occur in certified stands. Seed lots must stem from a minimum number of seed-trees, although the effect of this limit on genetic diversity has not been addressed. In this study, we aimed at understanding the effect of seed harvesting strategies on genetic diversity. We used the simulation model Eco-Gene and real molecular data to disentangle the effects of number of seed-trees and harvesting method in three wild cherry (Prunus avium) stands. Our results outline the importance of harvesting genetically different or distant seed-trees in maintaining genetic diversity. Besides optimal sampling strategy, we also recommend minimum harvesting of 25 seed-trees to reach 90 % of genetic diversity available within the stand. The outcomes of these results for the practice are also discussed.     

Genetic diversity in populations of Cronartium ribicola in plantations and natural stands of Pinus strobus

Genetic diversity was studied in 22 populations of the white pine blister rust fungus Cronartium ribicola from natural stands and plantations of eastern white pine, Pinus strobus. Pseudo-allelic frequencies were estimated at each of 7 putative RAPD loci by scoring for presence or absence of amplified fragments in dikaryotic aecidiospores. Analysis of genetic distance between all pairs of populations did not reveal any trend with regard to geographic origin or type of white pine stand. In addition, when hierarchical population structure was analysed, total genetic diversity (H _s =0.214) was mostly attributable to diversity within populations (H _s =0.199; AMOVA _st =0.121, P<0.01). Genetic diversity of populations relative to region of origin (east, centre, and west) or type of stand (natural stands vs plantations) was not significantly different from zero (P>0.10) Nevertheless, a significant proportion of genetic differentiation was found between populations within region or stand type (F _st =0.114; _sc =0.132, P<0.001). This result indicates that some population structure exists but that it appears to be independent of region of origin or type of stand. At least for 2 populations from white pine plantations, it appears possible that a recent introduction of a limited number of propagules was responsible for low levels of genetic diversity. We interpret these results as meaning that either long-distance dispersal is taking place between populations more than 1000 km apart or that these populations share a common recent ancestor. In addition, we suggest that C. ribicola may still be expanding its distribution by colonizing new plantations.     

The Effects of Land-use History on Soil Properties and Nutrient Dynamics in Northern Hardwood Forests of the Adirondack Mountains

Soil nutrient pools and nitrogen dynamics in old-growth forests were compared with selectively logged stands and stands that were selectively logged and then burned approximately 100 years ago to test the hypothesis that land-use history exerts persistent controls on nutrient capital and nitrogen (N) transformation rates. We provide estimates of net N mineralization and nitrification rates for old-growth forests from the northeastern United States, a region in which few old-growth forests remain and for which few published accounts of mineralization rates exist. At the plot level, no effects of the dominant tree species were observed on any measured soil properties or N-cycling rates. Effects of alternate disturbance histories were detected in soil carbon (C) and N pools. Old-growth forest soils had higher total C (67 Mg·ha^–1) and N capital (3.3 Mg·ha^–1) than that of historically logged then burned soils (C = 50 Mg·ha^–1 and N = Mg·ha^–1), with intermediate values (C = 54 Mg·ha^–1 and N = 2.7 Mg·ha^–1) in the stands that were historically logged. Despite these differences in C and N content, corresponding differences in C–N ratio, net N mineralization rates, and net nitrification rates were not observed. The N concentration in the green foliage of American beech trees (Fagus grandifolia) was also highest from canopy trees growing in old-growth stands (3.0%), followed by logged stands (2.6%), and lowest in the logged/burned stands (2.2%). These data suggest that some legacies of light harvesting on ecosystem processes may be detected nearly 100 years following the disturbance event. These results are discussed in the context of how multiple forest disturbances act in concert to affect forest dynamics.     

Changes in diversity and storage function of ectomycorrhiza and soil organoprofile dynamics after introduction of beech into Scots pine forests

Diversity and storage function of mycorrhiza as well as soil organoprofile formation were investigated in a chronosequence of a pure Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) stand, of Scots pine stands that were underplanted with beech (Fagus sylvatica L.) and in three pure beech stands of different age. Mycorrhiza diversity was higher in the pure beech stands compared to the pure pine stand. Beech and pine trees in the mixed stands had similar dominant mycorrhiza morphotypes. However, trees in two of the three pure beech stands were mycorrhized with other types. Mycorrhizal abundance and nutrient amounts of mycorrhizae associated with beech trees were higher in the mixed and in the pure beech stands compared to pine mycorrhizae indicating that nutrient uptake was higher in older beech than in older pine trees. Humus quality varied from pine to beech stands. Plant litter storage in the humus layer was highest in the youngest mixed stand and lowest in the oldest beech stand. Humus forms changed from moder grass-type in the pure Scots pine stand to mor-like moder and moder rich in fine humus with increasing age of beeches in the mixed stands. The older beech stands were characterised by oligomull and mull-like moder as the dominating humus forms. The ecologically favourable humus forms, i.e., nutrient rich humus forms in the older beech stands correlate well with the higher mycorrhizal diversity and abundance as well as the higher nutrient storage of their mycorrhizae in these stands. The results are also discussed with regard to the 'base-pump effect' of beech trees.     

Insect community response to switchgrass intercropping and stand age of loblolly pine (Pinus taeda) plantations

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