The organization of a honeyeater community in an unpredictable environment

The honeyeater community of an open-layered forest was studied in the New England National Park over a 2.5 year period. Various aspects of honeyeater behaviour (aggression, social and foraging) were examined during transects and by use of time-budgets. Time-budgets were used to estimate the daily energy requirements for each species. Since nectar availability in the study area was variable, the energy produced per day by the nectar sources was occasionally insufficient to meet the daily energy demands of the honeyeater community. No strong spatial partitioning of the nectar resources by the birds was found. Use of the resources appeared to be based primarily on dominance interactions (interspecific aggression), with the larger species tending to dominate the smaller ones. Smaller species survive in the area because of their behavioural attributes and greater foraging efficiency which enables them to use the sparse supply of nectar on poor days. Temporal gradients in nectar richness may be just as important as spatial gradients in permitting the coexistence of species which use the same resource in the same habitat. Most of the results from this study fail to support the predictions made elsewhere concerning the organization of communities in unpredictable environments.     

Geographical variation in size of an Australian honeyeater (Aves: Meliphagidae): an example of Bergmann's rule

The singing honeyeater, a nectar-feeding bird, is common throughout most of Australia. There is considerable geographical variation in weight, the heaviest birds (30 g) living at the highest latitudes (35°S) and the lightest birds (19 g) at the lowest latitudes (16°S). Clinal variation in weight is apparently related to climatic factors (e.g. potential evapotranspiration) in accord with Bergmann's rule. The exceptions are populations on islands and peninsulas which are about 13% heavier than those on the adjacent mainland.     

Yearly variation in seasonal patterns of honeyeater abundance,flower density and nectar production in heathland near Sydney

Despite a consistent seasonal pattern of daily production of nectar-energy per unit area with peak production around the end of May, the seasonal pattern of honeyeater abundance is not consistent between years and does not correspond to the pattern of nectar-energy production.     

Partitioning of resources amongst seed-harvesters in an ant community in semi-arid Australia

Resource partitioning among five species of seed-harvesting ants in a semi-arid saltbush and adjacent grassland habitat of southwestern New South Wales is analysed. While habitat differences between species were only slight, the utilization of two resource dimensions, food type and time available for activity by them, varied markedly in response to environmental changes. The degree to which species overlapped in their use of these resources also fluctuated as conditions varied. Thus, both the manner and extent to which the harvester ant species interact is rapidly and continually changing in response to environmental fluctuations. The results suggest that, at most times, there is very little pressure due to exploitative competition within the harvester ant community.     

Microdistribution of butterflies in a mosaic-like habitat: The role of nectar sources

The microdistribution of five butterfly species through their flying season was analyzed in a mosaic-like habitat, brought about by secondary succession In order to explain the patterns observed, activity patterns and the use and distribution of nectar sources were determined Emphasis was laid on the changing allocation of visits to flower species and changing abundances of flowers during the season The use of nectar sources was basically limited to three flower species, Centaurea scabiosa, C bracteata and Serratula tinctoria As a consequence, niche breadth values were generally low and niche overlaps generally high Some butterflies changed their patterns of flower visits during the season and therefore reduced niche overlap with the other butterfly species The microdistribution of Melanargia galathea, Lysandra condon, Ochlodes venatus and Lictoria achilleae was strongly influenced by the distribution of their preferred nectar sources as well as by areas generally rich in flowers Changing flower preferences of Melanargia galathea and Lysandra coridon males during the course of the season were also expressed by changes in the correlations between the distribution of these butterflies and their nectar plants The distribution of nectar sources was not found to be of importance for Coenonympha arcanta, a species which rarely visited flowers     

Allochthonous and autochthonous carbon sources for fish in floodplain lagoons of an Australian dryland river

Dryland rivers associated with arid and semi-arid land areas offer an opportunity to explore food web concepts and models of energy sources in systems that experience unpredictable flooding and long dry spells. This study investigated the sources of energy supporting three species of fish feeding at different trophic levels within floodplain lagoons of the Macintyre River in the headwaters of the Murray-Darling river system, Australia. Stable isotope analyses revealed that fish consumers derived, on average, 46.9% of their biomass from zooplankton, 38.1% from Coarse Particulate Organic Matter (CPOM) and 24.0% from algae. Ambassis agassizii derived on average 57.6% of its biomass carbon from zooplankton and 20.4–27.8% from algae or CPOM. Leiopotherapon unicolor derived most of its carbon from zooplankton and CPOM (38.3–39.5%), with relatively high contributions from algae compared to the other species (33.3%). An average of 48.4% of the biomass of Nematalosa erebi was derived from zooplankton, with CPOM contributing another 38.1%. Zooplankton was the most important source of organic carbon supporting all three fish species in floodplain lagoons. Phytoplankton, and possibly, particulate organic matter in the seston, are the most likely energy sources for the planktonic suspension feeders (zooplankton) and, consequently, the fish that feed on them. These results indicate a stronger dependence of consumers on autochthonous sources and on locally produced organic matter from the riparian zone (i.e., the Riverine Productivity Model), than on other resources.     

Partitioning sources of soil respiration in boreal black spruce forest using radiocarbon

Separating ecosystem and soil respiration into autotrophic and heterotrophic component sources is necessary for understanding how the net ecosystem exchange of carbon (C) will respond to current and future changes in climate and vegetation. Here, we use an isotope mass balance method based on radiocarbon to partition respiration sources in three mature black spruce forest stands in Alaska. Radiocarbon (Δ¹⁴C) signatures of respired C reflect the age of substrate C and can be used to differentiate source pools within ecosystems. Recently‐fixed C that fuels plant or microbial metabolism has Δ¹⁴C values close to that of current atmospheric CO₂, while C respired from litter and soil organic matter decomposition will reflect the longer residence time of C in plant and soil C pools. Contrary to our expectations, the Δ¹⁴C of C respired by recently excised black spruce roots averaged 14‰ greater than expected for recently fixed photosynthetic products, indicating that some portion of the C fueling root metabolism was derived from C storage pools with turnover times of at least several years. The Δ¹⁴C values of C respired by heterotrophs in laboratory incubations of soil organic matter averaged 60‰ higher than the contemporary atmosphere Δ¹⁴CO₂, indicating that the major contributors to decomposition are derived from a combination of sources consistent with a mean residence time of up to a decade. Comparing autotrophic and heterotrophic Δ¹⁴C end members with measurements of the Δ¹⁴C of total soil respiration, we calculated that 47–63% of soil CO₂ emissions were derived from heterotrophic respiration across all three sites. Our limited temporal sampling also observed no significant differences in the partitioning of soil respiration in the early season compared with the late season. Future work is needed to address the reasons for high Δ¹⁴C values in root respiration and issues of whether this method fully captures the contribution of rhizosphere respiration.     

Partitioning the effects of an ecosystem engineer: kangaroo rats control community structure via multiple pathways

1.?Ecosystem engineers impact communities by altering habitat conditions, but they can also have strong effects through consumptive, competitive and other non-engineering pathways. 2.?Engineering effects can lead to fundamentally different community dynamics than non-engineering effects, but the relative strengths of these interactions are seldom quantified. 3.?We combined structural equation modelling and exclosure experiments to partition the effects of a keystone engineer, the giant kangaroo rat (Dipodomys ingens), on plants, invertebrates and vertebrates in a semi-arid California grassland. 4.?We separated the effects of burrow creation from kangaroo rat density and found that kangaroo rats increased the diversity and abundance of other species via both engineering and non-engineering pathways. 5.?Engineering was the primary factor structuring plant and small mammal communities, whereas non-engineering effects structured invertebrate communities and increased lizard abundance. 6.?These results highlight the importance of the non-engineering effects of ecosystem engineers and shed new light on the multiple pathways by which strong-interactors shape communities.     

蝴蝶在生境和生物小区之间的移位伴随着对外来蜜源的利用

在发育成熟的温带环境中,植食性昆虫群落能迅速适应引入植物并将其作为幼虫的食物和花蜜.我们研究了经过森林砍伐的热带环境中蝴蝶对利用引入植物作为蜜源植物的适应快慢程度,并研究了蝴蝶-显花植物在新的生物小区中出现的范围,发现蝴蝶对引入显花植物的利用和探访多于本地植物,这与引入植物在调查地点、生物小区和植物丰度中的普遍性有关.此外,取食花蜜的蝴蝶和显花植物与正在形成的的生物小区有关,例如路边、农田、集约耕地以及花园.在这些新生物小区中,引入植物很重要,因为它们为蝴蝶提供了蜜源.     

Flies and concealed nectar sources: morphological innovations in the proboscis of Bombyliidae (Diptera)

Bee-flies (Bombyliidae) have morphological adaptations of the mouthparts to particular floral traits. To investigate this the short, plesiomorphic proboscis of Hemipenthes morio was compared with the long, apomorphic proboscis of Bombylius major . A novel feeding position enables B. major to use flowers that open to the side as additional nectar sources. The new horizontal feeding position is enabled by the prolonged ventral base of the proboscis. Bombylius major exploits deep corolla tubes with an elongate proboscis, and an increased efficiency in both the suction pumps and the sealing mechanisms of the proboscis. The exploitation of narrow corolla tubes is made possible by the shift from a sponging feeding mode, exhibited by H. morio , to the exclusively sucking mode in B. major . Besides quantitative changes in the proportions of the different proboscis components, labellar movements as well as the structures of saliva distribution are changed along with this shift. The labial musculature of B. major does not significantly differ from the plesiomorphic state, since both examined species do not only feed on nectar, but also on pollen.     

The assembly of plants used as nectar sources by hummingbirds in a Cerrado area of Central Brazil

Studies on hummingbird–plant interactions commonly use a pollination approach emphasizing mutualistic relationships. But floral resources are often used opportunistically by these birds. Plant–pollinator assemblies and pollination sustainability will depend both on the well-adapted plants and other potential floral resources. The Cerrado, Neotropical savannas of Central Brazil, has ca. 7.5 % of its flora supposedly adapted to hummingbird pollination. But detailed information about flowers effectively used by hummingbirds at community level is still lacking. Hence, we recorded all plant species visited by hummingbirds, to determine how these nectariferous flowers were distributed in time and space in different plant formations of a Cerrado area, and also the hummingbird species that visit them. The study was conducted between March 2007 and December 2008 in the Panga Ecological Station. Data regarding flowering phenology, floral morphology and visitation were collected monthly. Forty-six nectariferous species from 39 genera and 17 families were recorded, most with annual flowering dynamics and tubular flowers. But only 21 species had a combination of traits fitting classic ornithophilous syndrome. For the remaining species hummingbird visitation was ascertained from observations at the study site or other sites in the region. Eight hummingbird species occurred in the area and were recorded visiting directly 36 plant species. The study area presented a relatively low number of ornithophilous plants, but a great habitat diversity and many non-ornithophilous plants that hummingbirds used as nectar sources. Therefore, in the studied Cerrado, the diversity of environments and nectariferous plants favour the maintenance of resident and migrant hummingbirds.     

Extrafloral nectar in an apple ecosystem to enhance biological control

A common goal of conservation biological control is to enhance biodiversity and increase abundance and effectiveness of predators and parasitoids. Although many studies report an increase in abundance of natural enemies, it has been difficult to document increases in rates of biological control. To enhance parasitism of the tufted apple bud moth, Platynota idaeusalis (Walker) (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae), alternate food was provided by interplanting peaches bearing extrafloral nectaries into apple (Malus spp.) orchards. Laboratory studies showed that the presence of nectar increased longevity and parasitism rates by Goniozus floridanus (Bethylidae), the dominant parasitoid of tufted apple bud moth in West Virginia. In orchard studies, we found the total number of hymenopteran parasitoids was higher on peach (Prunus spp.) trees than on adjacent apple trees. Abundance of parasitic Hymenoptera also was significantly higher on the side of traps facing away from rather than toward peach trees, indicating attraction to peach trees. However, total parasitism rates of tufted apple bud moth were not affected by the presence of peach extrafloral nectar in any field studies. Insect injury to fruit at harvest showed that fruit from orchards with interplanted peach trees had less injury from San Jose scale, Quadraspidiotus perniciosus (Comstock) and stink bugs (Pentatomidae) than fruit from an apple monoculture. Although interplanting with peach trees did not produce the hypothesized result of increased biological control, the experiment did have beneficial results for pest management. These results demonstrate the importance of collecting data on variables beyond the targeted species when evaluating habitat manipulation experiments to fully assess the impact on the ecosystem.     

Effects of nectar volume and concentration on sugar intake rates of Australian honeyeaters (Meliphagidae)

Summary Sugar intake rates of captive Australian honeyeaters (Meliphagidae) feeding at artificial flowers varied across species, and as a function of nectar volume and concentration within each species. Red Wattlebirds (Anthochaera carunculata, 110 g), achieved higher intake rates than New Holland Honeyeaters (Phylidonyris novaehollandiae, 20 g), and both achieved higher rates than Eastern Spinebills (Acanthorhynchus tenuirostris, 10 g). These results reflect differences in bill and tongue dimensions as well as in body mass. Sugar intake rates for all three species increased with volume (5–50 l) at any given concentration (10–60% mass/mass sucrose). For a given volume, sugar intake rates peaked at intermediate concentrations: 40–50% for the two larger species, and 30–40% for the smallest species. Published studies for other nectarivores foraging at unlimited volume feeders also show optimal nectar concentrations of 30–50%. However, biophysical theory predicts optima at 20–26% for small volumes, and plants presumed to be adapted for bird-pollination often have dilute nectar (20–30%). To explore this discrepancy further, we presented New Holland Honeyeaters with a range of sucrose concentrations (10–50%) using two presentation schemes. In the first we varied concentration but kept volume constant, thus varying gross sugar reward available in each concentration. This gave maximum sugar intake rates at 50%. In the second we varied both volume and concentration so that gross sugar rewards were equal for all solutions, decoupling high concentrations and large sugar rewards. This gave optima at 20%. We argue that variation among plants in nature more closely resembles the latter, equal sugar presentation scheme, and therefore, that dilute nectars may indeed represent adaptations for bird pollination.     

Asymmetric competition for nectar between a large nectar thief and a small pollinator: an energetic point of view

There are two alternative hypotheses related to body size and competition for restricted food sources. The first one supposes that larger animals are superior competitors because of their increased feeding abilities, whereas the second one assumes superiority of smaller animals because of their lower food requirements. We examined the relationship between two unrelated species of different size, drinking technique, energy requirements and roles in plant pollination system, to reveal the features of their competitive interaction and mechanisms enabling their co-existence while utilising the same nectar source. We observed diurnal feeding behaviour of the main pollinator, the carpenter bee Xylocopa caffra and a nectar thief, the northern double-collared sunbird Cinnyris reichenowi on 19 clumps of Hypoestes aristata (Acanthaceae) in Bamenda Highlands, Cameroon. For comparative purpose, we established a simplistic model of daily energy expenditure and daily energy intake by both visitor species assuming that they spend all available daytime feeding on H. aristata. We revealed the energetic gain–expenditure balance of the studied visitor species in relation to diurnal changes in nectar quality and quantity. In general, smaller energy requirements and related ability to utilise smaller resources made the main pollinator X. caffra competitively superior to the larger nectar thief C. reichenowi. Nevertheless, sunbirds are endowed with several mechanisms to reduce asymmetry in exploitative competition, such as the use of nectar resources in times of the day when rivals are inactive, aggressive attacks on carpenter bees while defending the nectar plants, and higher speed of nectar consumption.