Regulation of axonal HCN1 trafficking in perforant path involves expression of specific TRIP8b isoforms

The functions of HCN channels in neurons depend critically on their subcellular localization, requiring fine-tuned machinery that regulates subcellular channel trafficking. Here we provide evidence that regulatory mechanisms governing axonal HCN channel trafficking involve association of the channels with specific isoforms of the auxiliary subunit TRIP8b. In the medial perforant path, which normally contains HCN1 channels in axon terminals in immature but not in adult rodents, we found axonal HCN1 significantly increased in adult mice lacking TRIP8b (TRIP8b(-/-)). Interestingly, adult mice harboring a mutation that results in expression of only the two most abundant TRIP8b isoforms (TRIP8b[1b/2](-/-)) exhibited an HCN1 expression pattern similar to wildtype mice, suggesting that presence of one or both of these isoforms (TRIP8b(1a), TRIP8b(1a-4)) prevents HCN1 from being transported to medial perforant path axons in adult mice. Concordantly, expression analyses demonstrated a strong increase of expression of both TRIP8b isoforms in rat entorhinal cortex with age. However, when overexpressed in cultured entorhinal neurons of rats, TRIP8b(1a), but not TRIP8b(1a-4), altered substantially the subcellular distribution of HCN1 by promoting somatodendritic and reducing axonal expression of the channels. Taken together, we conclude that TRIP8b isoforms are important regulators of HCN1 trafficking in entorhinal neurons and that the alternatively-spliced isoform TRIP8b(1a) could be responsible for the age-dependent redistribution of HCN channels out of perforant path axon terminals.     

TRIP8b splice forms act in concert to regulate the localization and expression of HCN1 channels in CA1 pyramidal neurons

HCN1 channel subunits, which contribute to the hyperpolarization-activated cation current (Ih), are selectively targeted to distal apical dendrites of hippocampal CA1 pyramidal neurons. Here, we addressed the importance of the brain-specific auxiliary subunit of HCN1, TRIP8b, in regulating HCN1 expression and localization. More than ten N-terminal splice variants of TRIP8b exist in brain and exert distinct effects on HCN1 trafficking when overexpressed. We found that isoform-wide disruption of the TRIP8b/HCN1 interaction caused HCN1 to be mistargeted throughout CA1 somatodendritic compartments. In contrast, HCN1 was targeted normally to CA1 distal dendrites in a TRIP8b knockout mouse that selectively lacked exons 1b and 2. Of the two remaining hippocampal TRIP8b isoforms, TRIP8b(1a-4) promoted HCN1 surface expression in dendrites, whereas TRIP8b(1a) suppressed HCN1 misexpression in axons. Thus, proper subcellular localization of HCN1 depends on its differential additive and subtractive sculpting by two isoforms of a single auxiliary subunit.     

Mouse TRIP13/PCH2 Is Required for Recombination and Normal Higher-Order Chromosome Structure during Meiosis

Accurate chromosome segregation during meiosis requires that homologous chromosomes pair and become physically connected so that they can orient properly on the meiosis I spindle. These connections are formed by homologous recombination closely integrated with the development of meiosis-specific, higher-order chromosome structures. The yeast Pch2 protein has emerged as an important factor with roles in both recombination and chromosome structure formation, but recent analysis suggested that TRIP13, the mouse Pch2 ortholog, is not required for the same processes. Using distinct Trip13 alleles with moderate and severe impairment of TRIP13 function, we report here that TRIP13 is required for proper synaptonemal complex formation, such that autosomal bivalents in Trip13-deficient meiocytes frequently displayed pericentric synaptic forks and other defects. In males, TRIP13 is required for efficient synapsis of the sex chromosomes and for sex body formation. Furthermore, the numbers of crossovers and chiasmata are reduced in the absence of TRIP13, and their distribution along the chromosomes is altered, suggesting a role for TRIP13 in aspects of crossover formation and/or control. Recombination defects are evident very early in meiotic prophase, soon after DSB formation. These findings provide evidence for evolutionarily conserved functions for TRIP13/Pch2 in both recombination and formation of higher order chromosome structures, and they support the hypothesis that TRIP13/Pch2 participates in coordinating these key aspects of meiotic chromosome behavior.     

Binding of the auxiliary subunit TRIP8b to HCN channels shifts the mode of action of cAMP

Hyperpolarization-activated cyclic nucleotide–regulated cation (HCN) channels generate the hyperpolarization-activated cation current Ih present in many neurons. These channels are directly regulated by the binding of cAMP, which both shifts the voltage dependence of HCN channel opening to more positive potentials and increases maximal Ih at extreme negative voltages where voltage gating is complete. Here we report that the HCN channel brain-specific auxiliary subunit TRIP8b produces opposing actions on these two effects of cAMP. In the first action, TRIP8b inhibits the effect of cAMP to shift voltage gating, decreasing both the sensitivity of the channel to cAMP (K_1/2) and the efficacy of cAMP (maximal voltage shift); conversely, cAMP binding inhibits these actions of TRIP8b. These mutually antagonistic actions are well described by a cyclic allosteric mechanism in which TRIP8b binding reduces the affinity of the channel for cAMP, with the affinity of the open state for cAMP being reduced to a greater extent than the cAMP affinity of the closed state. In a second apparently independent action, TRIP8b enhances the action of cAMP to increase maximal Ih. This latter effect cannot be explained by the cyclic allosteric model but results from a previously uncharacterized action of TRIP8b to reduce maximal current through the channel in the absence of cAMP. Because the binding of cAMP also antagonizes this second effect of TRIP8b, application of cAMP produces a larger increase in maximal Ih in the presence of TRIP8b than in its absence. These findings may provide a mechanistic explanation for the wide variability in the effects of modulatory transmitters on the voltage gating and maximal amplitude of Ih reported for different neurons in the brain.     

TRPM3 Expression in Mouse Retina

Transient receptor potential (TRP) channels constitute a large family of cation permeable ion channels that serve crucial functions in sensory systems by transducing environmental changes into cellular voltage and calcium signals. Within the retina, two closely related members of the melastatin TRP family, TRPM1 and TRPM3, are highly expressed. TRPM1 has been shown to be required for the depolarizing response to light of ON-bipolar cells, but the role of TRPM3 in the retina is unknown. Immunohistochemical staining of mouse retina with an antibody directed against the C-terminus of TRPM3 labeled the inner plexiform layer (IPL) and a subset of cells in the ganglion cell layer. Within the IPL, TRPM3 immunofluorescence was markedly stronger in the OFF sublamina than in the ON sublamina. Electroretinogram recordings showed that the scotopic and photopic a- and b-waves of TRPM3^-/- mice are normal indicating that TRPM3 does not play a major role in visual processing in the outer retina. TRPM3 activity was measured by calcium imaging and patch-clamp recording of immunopurified retinal ganglion cells. Application of the TRPM3 agonist, pregnenolone sulfate (PS), stimulated increases in intracellular calcium in ~40% of cells from wild type and TRPM1^‑/‑ mice, and the PS-stimulated increases in calcium were blocked by co-application of mefenamic acid, a TRPM3 antagonist. No PS-stimulated changes in fluorescence were observed in ganglion cells from TRPM3^-/- mice. Similarly, PS-stimulated currents that could be blocked by mefenamic acid were recorded from wild type retinal ganglion cells but were absent in ganglion cells from TRPM3^-/- mice.     

Chemokine Receptor CCR8 Is Required for Lipopolysaccharide-Triggered Cytokine Production in Mouse Peritoneal Macrophages

Chemokine (C-C motif) receptor 8 (CCR8), the chemokine receptor for chemokine (C-C motif) ligand 1 (CCL1), is expressed in T-helper type-2 lymphocytes and peritoneal macrophages (PMφ) and is involved in various pathological conditions, including peritoneal adhesions. However, the role of CCR8 in inflammatory responses is not fully elucidated. To investigate the function of CCR8 in macrophages, we compared cytokine secretion from mouse PMφ or bone marrow-derived macrophages (BMMφ) stimulated with various Toll-like receptor (TLR) ligands in CCR8 deficient (CCR8^{- /-}) and wild-type (WT) mice. We found that CCR8^-/- PMφ demonstrated attenuated secretion of tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α, interleukin (IL)-6, and IL-10 when stimulated with lipopolysaccharide (LPS). In particular, LPS-induced IL-10 production absolutely required CCR8. CCR8-dependent cytokine secretion was characteristic of PMφ but not BMMφ. To further investigate this result, we selected the small molecule compound R243 from a library of compounds with CCR8-antagonistic effects on CCL1-induced Ca²⁺ flux and CCL1-driven PMφ aggregation. Similar to CCR8^-/- PMφ, R243 attenuated secretion of TNF-α, IL-6, and most strikingly IL-10 from WT PMφ, but not BMMφ. CCR8^-/- PMφ and R243-treated WT PMφ both showed suppressed c-jun N-terminal kinase activity and nuclear factor-κB signaling after LPS treatment when compared with WT PMφ. A c-Jun signaling pathway inhibitor also produced an inhibitory effect on LPS-induced cytokine secretion that was similar to that of CCR8 deficiency or R243 treatment. As seen in CCR8^-/- mice, administration of R243 attenuated peritoneal adhesions in vivo. R243 also prevented hapten-induced colitis. These results are indicative of cross talk between signaling pathways downstream of CCR8 and TLR-4 that induces cytokine production by PMφ. Through use of CCR8^-/- mice and the new CCR8 inhibitor, R243, we identified a novel macrophage innate immune response pathway that involves a chemokine receptor.     

Alternative splicing of TRIP8b diversifies its actions as an accessory subunit of neuronal HCN channels

Commentary to:

1. Lewis AS, Schwartz E, Chan CS, Noam Y, Shin M, Wadman WJ, Surmeier DJ, Baram, TZ, Macdonald, RL and Chetkovich DM. Alternatively spliced isoforms of TRIP8b differentially control h channel trafficking and function. J Neurosci 1009; 29:6250-65.

2. Santoro B, Piskorowski RA, Pian P, Hu L, Liu H and Siegelbaum SA. TRIP8b splice variants form a family of auxiliary subunits that regulate gating and trafficking in HCN channels in the brain. Neuron 2009; 62:802-13.

Zolles G, Wenzel D, Bidl W, Schulte U, Hofmann A, Müller CS, Thumfart JO, Vlachos A, Deller, T, Pfeifer A, Fleischmann BK, Roeper J, Fakler B and Klöcker N. Association with the auxiliary subunit PEX5R/Trip8b controls responsiveness of HCN channels to cAMP and adrenergic stimulation. Neuron 2009; 62:814-25     

Proteolytic Processing of Nlrp1b Is Required for Inflammasome Activity

Nlrp1b is a NOD-like receptor that detects the catalytic activity of anthrax lethal toxin and subsequently co-oligomerizes into a pro-caspase-1 activation platform known as an inflammasome. Nlrp1b has two domains that promote oligomerization: a NACHT domain, which is a member of the AAA+ ATPase family, and a poorly characterized Function to Find Domain (FIIND). Here we demonstrate that proteolytic processing within the FIIND generates N-terminal and C-terminal cleavage products of Nlrp1b that remain associated in both the auto-inhibited state and in the activated state after cells have been treated with lethal toxin. Functional significance of cleavage was suggested by the finding that mutations that block processing of Nlrp1b also prevent the ability of Nlrp1b to activate pro-caspase-1. By using an uncleaved mutant of Nlrp1b, we established the importance of cleavage by inserting a heterologous TEV protease site into the FIIND and demonstrating that TEV protease processed this site and induced inflammasome activity. Proteolysis of Nlrp1b was shown to be required for the assembly of a functional inflammasome: a mutation within the FIIND that abolished cleavage had no effect on self-association of a FIIND-CARD fragment, but did reduce the recruitment of pro-caspase-1. Our work indicates that a post-translational modification enables Nlrp1b to function.     

Maternal Setdb1 Is Required for Meiotic Progression and Preimplantation Development in Mouse

Oocyte meiotic progression and maternal-to-zygote transition are accompanied by dynamic epigenetic changes. The functional significance of these changes and the key epigenetic regulators involved are largely unknown. Here we show that Setdb1, a lysine methyltransferase, controls the global level of histone H3 lysine 9 di-methyl (H3K9me2) mark in growing oocytes. Conditional deletion of Setdb1 in developing oocytes leads to meiotic arrest at the germinal vesicle and meiosis I stages, resulting in substantially fewer mature eggs. Embryos derived from these eggs exhibit severe defects in cell cycle progression, progressive delays in preimplantation development, and degeneration before reaching the blastocyst stage. Rescue experiments by expressing wild-type or inactive Setdb1 in Setdb1-deficient oocytes suggest that the catalytic activity of Setdb1 is essential for meiotic progression and early embryogenesis. Mechanistically, up-regulation of Cdc14b, a dual-specificity phosphatase that inhibits meiotic progression, greatly contributes to the meiotic arrest phenotype. Setdb1 deficiency also leads to derepression of transposons and increased DNA damage in oocytes, which likely also contribute to meiotic defects. Thus, Setdb1 is a maternal-effect gene that controls meiotic progression and is essential for early embryogenesis. Our results uncover an important link between the epigenetic machinery and the major signaling pathway governing meiotic progression.     

HCN Channels Are Not Required for Mechanotransduction in Sensory Hair Cells of the Mouse Inner Ear

The molecular composition of the hair cell transduction channel has not been identified. Here we explore the novel hypothesis that hair cell transduction channels include HCN subunits. The HCN family of ion channels includes four members, HCN1-4. They were orginally identified as the molecular correlates of the hyperpolarization-activated, cyclic nucleotide gated ion channels that carry currents known as I_f, I_Q or I_h. However, based on recent evidence it has been suggested that HCN subunits may also be components of the elusive hair cell transduction channel. To investigate this hypothesis we examined expression of mRNA that encodes HCN1-4 in sensory epithelia of the mouse inner ear, immunolocalization of HCN subunits 1, 2 and 4, uptake of the transduction channel permeable dye, FM1-43 and electrophysiological measurement of mechanotransduction current. Dye uptake and transduction current were assayed in cochlear and vestibular hair cells of wildtype mice exposed to HCN channel blockers or a dominant-negative form of HCN2 that contained a pore mutation and in mutant mice that lacked HCN1, HCN2 or both. We found robust expression of HCNs 1, 2 and 4 but little evidence that localized HCN subunits in hair bundles, the site of mechanotransduction. Although high concentrations of the HCN antagonist, ZD7288, blocked 50–70% of the transduction current, we found no reduction of transduction current in either cochlear or vestibular hair cells of HCN1- or HCN2- deficient mice relative to wild-type mice. Furthermore, mice that lacked both HCN1 and HCN2 also had normal transduction currents. Lastly, we found that mice exposed to the dominant-negative mutant form of HCN2 had normal transduction currents as well. Taken together, the evidence suggests that HCN subunits are not required for mechanotransduction in hair cells of the mouse inner ear.     

Beta-Actin Is Required for Proper Mouse Neural Crest Ontogeny

The mouse genome consists of six functional actin genes of which the expression patterns are temporally and spatially regulated during development and in the adult organism. Deletion of beta-actin in mouse is lethal during embryonic development, although there is compensatory expression of other actin isoforms. This suggests different isoform specific functions and, more in particular, an important function for beta-actin during early mammalian development. We here report a role for beta-actin during neural crest ontogeny. Although beta-actin null neural crest cells show expression of neural crest markers, less cells delaminate and their migration arrests shortly after. These phenotypes were associated with elevated apoptosis levels in neural crest cells, whereas proliferation levels were unchanged. Specifically the pre-migratory neural crest cells displayed higher levels of apoptosis, suggesting increased apoptosis in the neural tube accounts for the decreased amount of migrating neural crest cells seen in the beta-actin null embryos. These cells additionally displayed a lack of membrane bound N-cadherin and dramatic decrease in cadherin-11 expression which was more pronounced in the pre-migratory neural crest population, potentially indicating linkage between the cadherin-11 expression and apoptosis. By inhibiting ROCK ex vivo, the knockout neural crest cells regained migratory capacity and cadherin-11 expression was upregulated. We conclude that the presence of beta-actin is vital for survival, specifically of pre-migratory neural crest cells, their proper emigration from the neural tube and their subsequent migration. Furthermore, the absence of beta-actin affects cadherin-11 and N-cadherin function, which could partly be alleviated by ROCK inhibition, situating the Rho-ROCK signaling in a feedback loop with cadherin-11.     

AAV-Mediated Clarin-1 Expression in the Mouse Retina: Implications for USH3A Gene Therapy

Usher syndrome type III (USH3A) is an autosomal recessive disorder caused by mutations in clarin-1 (CLRN1) gene, leading to progressive retinal degeneration and sensorineural deafness. Efforts to develop therapies for preventing photoreceptor cell loss are hampered by the lack of a retinal phenotype in the existing USH3 mouse models and by conflicting reports regarding the endogenous retinal localization of clarin-1, a transmembrane protein of unknown function. In this study, we used an AAV-based approach to express CLRN1 in the mouse retina in order to determine the pattern of its subcellular localization in different cell types. We found that all major classes of retinal cells express AAV-delivered CLRN1 driven by the ubiquitous, constitutive small chicken β-actin promoter, which has important implications for the design of future USH3 gene therapy studies. Within photoreceptor cells, AAV-expressed CLRN1 is mainly localized at the inner segment region and outer plexiform layer, similar to the endogenous expression of other usher proteins. Subretinal delivery using a full strength viral titer led to significant loss of retinal function as evidenced by ERG analysis, suggesting that there is a critical limit for CLRN1 expression in photoreceptor cells. Taken together, these results suggest that CLRN1 expression is potentially supported by a variety of retinal cells, and the right combination of AAV vector dose, promoter, and delivery method needs to be selected to develop safe therapies for USH3 disorder.     

Prox1 Inhibits Proliferation and Is Required for Differentiation of the Oligodendrocyte Cell Lineage in the Mouse

Central nervous system injury induces a regenerative response in ensheathing glial cells comprising cell proliferation, spontaneous axonal remyelination, and limited functional recovery, but the molecular mechanisms are not fully understood. In Drosophila, this involves the genes prospero and Notch controlling the balance between glial proliferation and differentiation, and manipulating their levels in glia can switch the response to injury from prevention to promotion of repair. In the mouse, Notch1 maintains NG2 oligodendrocyte progenitor cells (OPCs) in a progenitor state, but what factor may enable oligodendrocyte (OL) differentiation and functional remyelination is not understood. Here, we asked whether the mammalian homologue of prospero, Prox1, is involved. Our data show that Prox1 is distributed in NG2+ OPCs and in OLs in primary cultured cells, and in the mouse spinal cord in vivo. siRNA prox1 knockdown in primary OPCs increased cell proliferation, increased NG2+ OPC cell number and decreased CC1+ OL number. Prox1 conditional knockout in the OL cell lineage in mice increased NG2+ OPC cell number, and decreased CC1+ OL number. Lysolecithin-induced demyelination injury caused a reduction in CC1+ OLs in homozygous Prox1-/- conditional knockout mice compared to controls. Remarkably, Prox1-/- conditional knockout mice had smaller lesions than controls. Altogether, these data show that Prox1 is required to inhibit OPC proliferation and for OL differentiation, and could be a relevant component of the regenerative glial response. Therapeutic uses of glia and stem cells to promote regeneration and repair after central nervous system injury would benefit from manipulating Prox1.     

Lymphoid EVA1 Expression Is Required for DN1-DN3 Thymocytes Transition

Background

Thymus organogenesis and T lymphocyte development are accomplished together during fetal life. Proper development and maintenance of thymus architecture depend on signals generated by a sustained crosstalk between developing thymocytes and stromal elements. Any maturation impairment occurring in either cellular component leads to an aberrant thymic development. Gene expression occurring during T lymphocyte differentiation must be coordinated in a spatio-temporal fashion; one way in which this is achieved is through the regulation by cell-cell adhesion and interactions.

Principal Findings

We examined the role played by Epithelial V-like Antigen 1 (EVA1), an Ig adhesion molecule expressed on thymus epithelial cells (TEC) and immature thymocytes, in T cell development by employing RNA interference in vitro and in vivo models. Fetal liver derived haematopoietic progenitors depleted of Eva1, displayed a delayed DN1-DN3 transition and failed to generate CD4CD8 double positive T cells in OP9-DL1 coculture system. In addition, we could observe a coordinated Eva1 up-regulation in stromal and haematopoietic cells in coculture control experiments, suggesting a possible EVA1 involvement in TEC-haematopoietic cells crosstalk mechanisms. Similarly, Rag2-γc double knock out mice, transplanted with Eva1 depleted haematopoietic progenitors displayed a 10-fold reduction in thymus reconstitution and a time delayed thymocytes maturation compared to controls.

Conclusions

Our findings show that modulation of Eva1 expression in thymocytes is crucial for lymphocyte physiological developmental progression and stromal differentiation.     

Melatonin Signaling Modulates Clock Genes Expression in the Mouse Retina

Previous studies have shown that retinal melatonin plays an important role in the regulation of retinal daily and circadian rhythms. Melatonin exerts its influence by binding to G-protein coupled receptors named melatonin receptor type 1 and type 2 and both receptors are present in the mouse retina. Earlier studies have shown that clock genes are rhythmically expressed in the mouse retina and melatonin signaling may be implicated in the modulation of clock gene expression in this tissue. In this study we determined the daily and circadian expression patterns of Per1, Per2, Bmal1, Dbp, Nampt and c-fos in the retina and in the photoreceptor layer (using laser capture microdissection) in C3H-f+/+ and in melatonin receptors of knockout (MT₁ and MT₂) of the same genetic background using real-time quantitative RT-PCR. Our data indicated that clock and clock-controlled genes are rhythmically expressed in the retina and in the photoreceptor layer. Removal of melatonin signaling significantly affected the pattern of expression in the retina whereas in the photoreceptor layer only the Bmal1 circadian pattern of expression was affected by melatonin signaling removal. In conclusion, our data further support the notion that melatonin signaling may be important for the regulation of clock gene expression in the inner or ganglion cells layer, but not in photoreceptors.