First biologic and genetic characterization of Toxoplasma gondii isolates from chickens from Africa (Democratic Republic of Congo, Mali, Burkina Faso, and Kenya)

The prevalence of Toxoplasma gondii in free-ranging chickens (Gallus domesticus) is a good indicator of the prevalence of T. gondii oocysts in the soil because chickens feed from the ground. In the present study, prevalence of T. gondii in chickens from Democratic Republic of Congo, Mali, Burkina Faso, and Kenya is reported. The prevalence of T. gondii antibodies in sera of 50 free-range chickens from Congo was 50% based on the modified agglutination test (MAT); antibody titers were 1:5 in 7, 1:10 in 7, 1:20 in 6, 1:40 in 1, and 1:160 or more in 4 chickens. Hearts, pectoral muscles, and brains of 11 chickens with titers of 1:20 or more were bioassayed individually in mice; T. gondii was isolated from 9, from the hearts of 9, brains of 3, and muscles of 3 chickens. Tissues of each of the 14 chickens with titers of 1:5 or 1:10 were pooled and bioassayed in mice; T. gondii was isolated from 1 chicken with a titer of 1:10. Tissues from the remaining 25 seronegative chickens were pooled and fed to 1 T. gondii-free cat. Feces of the cat were examined for oocysts, but none was seen. The results indicate that T. gondii localizes in the hearts more often than in other tissues of naturally infected chickens. Genotyping of these 10 isolates using the SAG2 locus indicated that 8 were isolates were type III, 1 was type II, and 1 was type I. Two isolates (1 type I and 1 type III) were virulent for mice. Toxoplasma gondii was isolated by mouse bioassay from a pool of brains and hearts of 5 of 48 chickens from Mali and 1 of 40 chickens from Burkina Faso; all 6 isolates were avirulent for mice. Genetically, 4 isolates were type III and 2 were type II. Sera were not available from chickens from Mali and Burkina Faso. Toxoplasma gondii antibodies (MAT 100 or more) were found in 4 of 30 chickens from Kenya, and T. gondii was isolated from the brain of 1 of 4 seropositive chickens; this strain was avirulent for mice and was type II. This is the first report on isolation and genotyping of T. gondii from any source from these 4 countries in Africa.     

The impact of land use on water quality of the Lwiro River,Democratic Republic of Congo,Central Africa

The water quality of the Lwiro River, Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC), Central Africa, was investigated on a monthly basis from December 1999–October 2000, at six stations along a hydraulic gradient from source to mouth, to evaluate the impact of land use on temperature, Dissolved Oxygen (DO), Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD₅), alkalinity and suspended solids. Upstream, where forests are conserved, minimal changes of physico-chemical parameters of water were observed. Downstream, DO was reduced, due to the increased organic matter content which increased the decomposition rate. BOD₅ and suspended solids increased downstream. Greater changes were found near agricultural areas and villages. Wetlands appear to mitigate BOD₅ and DO impacts.     

Possible Brucellosis in an Early Hominin Skeleton from Sterkfontein,South Africa

We report on the paleopathological analysis of the partial skeleton of the late Pliocene hominin species Australopithecus africanus Stw 431 from Sterkfontein, South Africa. A previous study noted the presence of lesions on vertebral bodies diagnosed as spondylosis deformans due to trauma. Instead, we suggest that these lesions are pathological changes due to the initial phases of an infectious disease, brucellosis. The macroscopic, microscopic and radiological appearance of the lytic lesions of the lumbar vertebrae is consistent with brucellosis. The hypothesis of brucellosis (most often associated with the consumption of animal proteins) in a 2.4 to 2.8 million year old hominid has a host of important implications for human evolution. The consumption of meat has been regarded an important factor in supporting, directing or altering human evolution. Perhaps the earliest (up to 2.5 million years ago) paleontological evidence for meat eating consists of cut marks on animal remains and stone tools that could have made these marks. Now with the hypothesis of brucellosis in A. africanus, we may have evidence of occasional meat eating directly linked to a fossil hominin.     

Two new genera of nematode (Oxyurida,Hystrignathidae) parasites of Passalidae (Coleoptera) from the Democratic Republic of Congo

Two new genera and species parasitizing passalid beetles from the Democratic Republic of Congo are described. Kongonema meyeri gen. n. sp. n. is characterized by having females with the cervical cuticle unarmed, first cephalic annule cone-like and truncate, sub-cylindrical procorpus and genital tract didelphic-amphidelphic. The males of Kongonema meyeri gen. n. sp. n. have the procorpus sub-cylindrical, the dorsal cuticle of the tail end thickened, a single large, median mammiform pre-cloacal papilla and a pair of small, pre-cloacal, sub-lateral papillae at a short distance before the level of the cloaca. Lubanema decraemerae gen. n. sp. n. is characterized by the body markedly fusiform, cuticle unarmed and strongly annulated, procorpus sub-cylindrical, isthmus as a constriction between procorpus and basal bulb, genital tract monodelphic-prodelphic and the posterior end rounded with a very short tail appendage.     

Thysanotaenia congolensis n. sp. (Cestoda: Anoplocephalidae) in the lesser savanna cane rat, Thryonomys gregorianus from Democratic Republic of Congo, Africa

Ten (100%) lesser savanna cane rats, Thryonomys gregorianus, collected from the Lake Kivv area of the Democratic Republic of Congo, Africa were found to be infected with an undescribed anoplocephalid tapeworm, Thysanotaenia congolensis n. sp. Like other species of Thysanotaenia, T. congolensis n. sp. has the ovary and vitellarium centrally located, and the egg capsules and testes are intervascular. The new species differs from the 2 existing species, Thysanotaenia lemuris in lemurs and Thysanotaenia cubensis in humans, in being smaller (34-50 mm long) and in having a smaller scolex (260-410 microns in diameter), a shorter cirrus sac (115 microns long), and smaller eggs (40 microns in diameter). Anastomoses of the excretory system and formation of egg capsules in the new species are also described.     

Feeding ecology of the armored shrew, from the north-eastern Democratic Republic of Congo

The diet of Scutisorex somereni (Soricomorpha: Soricidae) from forests in the Democratic Republic of Congo was investigated to elucidate its feeding ecology in the context of its unique spinal modifications. It ate a wide range of small and large invertebrates, including representatives of Coleoptera, Formicidae, Lepidoptera and Diptera larvae, Chilopoda, Diplopoda and Araneae, but the principal prey was Oligochaeta. All diet samples contained Oligochaeta and these contributed 38–45% of prey volume. While 64% of prey occurrences were <10 mm in length, 56% of prey volume comprised invertebrates >26 mm, mostly large Oligochaeta (some of >50 mm). Soil-dwelling prey comprised 46% by composition (59% by volume) of the diet. Besides its peculiar skeletal modifications, it has an exceptionally long intestine relative to its body size. It was concluded that S. somereni is primarily an earthworm-eating shrew and partially subterranean rather than truly fossorial in foraging mode. Its diet and foraging mode cannot explain the unique vertebral modifications of this zoological curiosity.     

Toxic and essential elements in children's blood (<6 years) from Kinshasa,DRC (the Democratic Republic of Congo)

In this study we determined the concentration of 9 trace elements (As, Cd, Cu, Hg, Mn, Mo, Pb, Se and Zn) in whole blood of children (n = 100, 64 girls, 36 boys and median age: 36 months) using inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS). The proportion of children potentially deficient in essential elements or poisoned by toxic elements was evaluated. The aging effects on the concentration of these elements were also investigated. The median values were 3.17 μg/L (As), 0.15 μg/L (Cd), 1.1 mg/L (Cu), 2.1 μg/L (Hg), 10.4 μg/L (Mn), 17.7 μg/L (Mo), 8.7 μg/dL (Pb), 10.7 μg/L (Se) and 5.0 mg/L (Zn). The concentration of many elements (As, Cd, Hg, Mn, Pb and Zn) showed significant age variations but not sex influence. Regarding levels of the essential elements (Cu, Mn, Mo, Se and Zn), B-Cu, B-Mn, B-Se and B-Zn were in the normal range, whereas exceeded levels were observed for B-Mo. None of these children was deficient in essential elements. Except B-Cd, all toxic elements showed exceeded blood levels. The proportion of children potentially poisoned by toxic elements varies from 10% (n = 10) to 95% (n = 95) and depends on toxic element: 95% for As, 10% for Hg and 35% for Pb. The main health concerns emerging from this study are the high As, Hg and Pb exposures of the Kinshasan children requiring further documentation, corrective actions and the implementation of appropriate regulations.     

A new nematode (Nematoda: Cosmocercidae) from the lizard, Chamaeleo inturensis (Squamata: Chamaeleonidae) from the Democratic Republic of Congo

Maracaya africana n. sp. (Nematoda: Cosmocercidae) from the large intestine of the lizard Chamaeleo inturensis collected in Democratic Republic of Congo is described and illustrated. This is the first record of a species of Maracaya Diaz-Ungria (1963) for Africa. Light microscopy and scanning electron microscopy (SEM) studies revealed morphological differences in the structure of the male caudal end and cephalic end, which enabled us to differentiate these new species from the others. A key for determination of all species in the genus is provided.     

Wild Edible Plant Markets in Kisangani, Democratic Republic of Congo

Benefits from wild edible plants (WEP) are multiple for rural households as well as urban traders. To set species priorities for WEP market development and domestication, we performed an inventory of WEP species and traders in five markets and one road-side selling point in Kisangani. During four one-month sessions between September 2007 and July 2008, all WEP traders present in the target markets were interviewed. We registered 119 unique sellers, selling 15 different WEPs. The September-October period and ‘Marché Central’ were the most important for WEP trade in Kisangani. Added values and net incomes generated through WEP sales were very divergent. Four types of traders could be distinguished. Gnetum africanum trade involves the more dynamic traders. Cola acuminata, Garcinia kola and Piper guineense spices have local and international market potential. Within the wild fruits category we propose Landolphia owariensis and Tetracarpidium conophorum as priority species for local market development.     

Ocular Pentastomiasis in the Democratic Republic of the Congo

Ocular pentastomiasis is a rare infection caused by the larval stage of pentastomids, an unusual group of crustacean-related parasites. Zoonotic pentastomids have a distinct geographical distribution and utilize reptiles or canids as final hosts. Recently, an increasing number of human abdominal infections have been reported in Africa, where pentastomiasis is an emerging, though severely neglected, tropical disease. Here we describe four ocular infections caused by pentastomids from the Democratic Republic of the Congo. Two cases underwent surgery and an Armillifer grandis infection was detected by morphological and molecular approaches. Thus far, 15 other cases of ocular pentastomiasis have been reported worldwide. Twelve cases were caused by Armillifer sp., recorded almost exclusively in Africa, where such infections occur as a consequence of hunting and consuming snakes, their final hosts. Seven further cases were caused by Linguatula serrata, a cosmopolitan pentastomid whose final hosts are usually canids. Intraocular infections caused permanent visual damage in 69% and a total loss of vision in 31% of reported cases. In contrast, ocular adnexal cases had a benign clinical course. Further research is required to estimate the burden, therapeutic options and pathogenesis of this neglected disease.     

Prospects for Bonobo Insectivory: Lui Kotal, Democratic Republic of Congo

Chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes) are well-known to eat invertebrates, especially social insects, across Africa, but allopatric bonobos (P. paniscus) are not. Bonobo insectivory is sparsely documented and apparently sporadic. However, the availability to bonobos of social insect prey and raw materials with which to make tools to exploit them is unknown. Here, we test a set of hypotheses that relates to questions of presence, abundance, density, and distribution of taxa that Pan consume and of vegetation suitable for making extractive foraging tools. We worked at Lui Kotal, Democratic Republic of Congo, where unprovisioned bonobos live in intact forest, far from villages. We collected insect and fecal specimens, transected for prey and assessed raw materials, and monitored mounds of Macrotermes. All but 1 of the major taxa of relevant termites, ants, and (stinging) honey bees were present. The 3 main taxa of insects that chimpanzees elsewhere eat —Macrotermes (fungus-growing termites), Dorylus (Anomma; army or driver ants), and Apis (honey bees)— were abundant and widespread, and usually at densities exceeding those at well-known chimpanzee study-sites. Similarly, woody and nonwoody vegetation suitable for making fishing probes was common at mounds of Macrotermes. There is no obvious ecological reason why bonobos should not use elementary technology in extractive foraging, e.g., termite-fish, ant-fish, ant-dip, honey-dip, to obtain social insects.     

Two new heterakid (Nematoda) species from Kinixys erosa (Schweigger, 1812), (Chelonii: Testudinidae) in the Democratic Republic of Congo

Two species of Africana Tavassos, 1920 (Africana kinixysae n. sp. and Africana congoensis n. sp.) are described from Kinixys erosa (Schweigger, 1812) in the Democratic Republic of Congo. Light microscopy and scanning electron microscopy studies revealed morphological differences in the structure of the male caudal end and cephalic end, which helped to differentiate these new species from the other species of the genus, and from each other. A key for determination of all species in the genus is provided.     

Predictors of Persistent Anaemia in the First Year of Antiretroviral Therapy: A Retrospective Cohort Study from Goma,the Democratic Republic of Congo

Background

Anaemia is associated with adverse outcomes including early death in the first year of antiretroviral therapy (ART). This study reports on the factors associated with persistent anaemia among HIV-infected patients initiating ART in the Democratic Republic of Congo (DR Congo).

Methods

We conducted a retrospective cohort study and analyzed data from patients receiving HIV care between January 2004 and December 2012 at two major hospitals in Goma, DR Congo. Haemoglobin concentrations of all patients on ART regimen were obtained prior to and within one year of ART initiation. A logistic regression model was used to identify the predictors of persistent anaemia after 12 months of ART.

Results

Of 756 patients, 69% of patients were anaemic (IC95%: 65.7–72.3) at baseline. After 12 months of follow up, there was a 1.2 g/dl average increase of haemoglobin concentration (P < 0.001) with differences depending on the therapeutic regimen. Patients who received zidovudine (AZT) gained less than those who did not receive AZT (0.99 g/dl vs 1.33 g/dl; p< 0.001). Among 445 patient who had anaemia at the beginning, 33% (147/445) had the condition resolved. Among patients with anaemia at ART initiation, those who did not receive cotrimoxazole prophylaxis before starting ART(AOR 3.89; 95% CI 2.09–7.25; P < 0.001) and a AZT initial regimen (AOR 2.19; 95% CI 1.36–3.52; P < 0.001) were significantly at risk of persistent anaemia.

Conclusions

More than two thirds of patients had anaemia at baseline. The AZT-containing regimen and absence of cotrimoxazole prophylaxis before starting ART were associated with persistent anaemia 12 months, after initiation of treatment. Considering the large proportion of patients with persistence of anaemia at 12 months, we suggest that it is necessary to conduct a large study to assess anaemia among HIV-infected patients in Goma.     

Urinary testosterone levels of wild male bonobos (Pan paniscus) in the Lomako Forest, Democratic Republic of Congo

We collected urine samples from seven male bonobos (Pan paniscus) in the Eyengo community, Lomako Forest, Democratic Republic of Congo, and assayed them for testosterone (T). T levels averaged 525 pmol/mg Cr in adult males, and 309 pmol/mg Cr in subadult males. We collected hormonal and behavioral data during a period of relative social instability following the recent arrival of two immigrant males. In concordance with predictions derived from the challenge hypothesis [Wingfield et al., American Naturalist 136:829-846, 1990], which relates T to levels of reproductive aggression, the alpha male had the highest circulating levels of T. When we removed the two recent immigrant males from the analysis, there was a significant positive correlation between T levels and dominance rank for the long-term resident males (n=5, P=0.001, r2=0.98). These are the first data on T levels in wild bonobos, and the results suggest that further study of the relationship between T levels and social context in this species could inform current models relating hormones and aggression in wild apes.     

Rights violations, rumour, and rhetoric: making sense of cannibalism in Mambasa, Ituri (Democratic Republic of Congo)

In January 2003, in the midst of civil war, Mbuti pygmies from Mambasa, Ituri, informed human rights organizations and the media that relatives had been killed, cooked, and eaten by soldiers of the Mouvement pour la Libération du Congo (MLC). Nearly two years later, spectacularly, the accusers withdrew their testimonies. This article tries to make sense of the allegation and subsequent retraction by reviewing how the Congolese print media covered the story. Against the backdrop of turbulent politics and moral crisis, it is argued that 'Cannibalism in Mambasa' needs to be understood first and foremost as a politically driven metaphor of extreme violence and suffering, even though acts of cannibalism cannot be ruled out.  

Résumé

En janvier 2003, en pleine guerre civile dans l'Ituri, des Pygmées Mbuti de Mambasa informèrent les organisations humanitaires et les médias que des membres de leur tribu avaient été tués, cuits et dévorés par les soldats du Mouvement pour la Libération du Congo (MLC). Deux ans plus tard, les accusateurs se rétractaient spectaculairement. Le présent article tente de donner un sens à ces accusations puis aux rétractations, à travers la couverture de cette affaire par la presse congolaise. L'auteur affirme que dans ce contexte de grave crise politique et morale, le « cannibalisme à Mambasa >> doit être d'abord, et avant tout, compris comme une métaphore politique de violence et de souffrance extrêmes, bien que l'on ne puisse pas exclure la possibilité que des actes de cannibalisme aient bien été commis.     

Unprecedented degree of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) group M genetic diversity in the Democratic Republic of Congo suggests that the HIV-1 pandemic originated in Central Africa

The purpose of this study was to document the genetic diversity of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) in the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC; formerly Zaire). A total of 247 HIV-1-positive samples, collected during an epidemiologic survey conducted in 1997 in three regions (Kinshasa [the capital], Bwamanda [in the north], and Mbuyi-Maya [in the south]), were genetically characterized in the env V3-V5 region. All known subtypes were found to cocirculate, and for 6% of the samples the subtype could not be identified. Subtype A is predominant, with prevalences decreasing from north to south (69% in the north, 53% in the capital city, and 46% in the south). Subtype C, D, G, and H prevalences range from 7 to 9%, whereas subtype F, J, K, and CRF01-AE strains represent 2 to 4% of the samples; only one subtype B strain was identified. The highest prevalence (25%) of subtype C was in the south, and CRF01-AE was seen mainly in the north. The high intersubtype variability among the V3-V5 sequences is the most probable reason for the low (45%) efficiency of subtype A-specific PCR and HMA (heteroduplex mobility assay). Eighteen (29%) of 62 samples had discordant subtype designations between env and gag. Sequence analysis of the entire envelope from 13 samples confirmed the high degree of diversity and complexity of HIV-1 strains in the DRC; 9 had a complex recombinant structure in gp160, involving fragments of known and unknown subtypes. Interestingly, the unknown fragments from the different strains did not cluster together. Overall, the high number of HIV-1 subtypes cocirculating, the high intrasubtype diversity, and the high numbers of possible recombinant viruses as well as different unclassified strains are all in agreement with an old and mature epidemic in the DRC, suggesting that this region is the epicenter of HIV-1 group M.     

Forest progression modes in littoral Congo, Central Atlantic Africa

Aim To understand the persistence of a forest–savanna mosaic in places where rainfall data suggest that forest take‐over should take place. To study the various modes of forest encroachment, and the role of human activities to hamper it. Location Data were collected on several forest–savanna ecotones in the coastal region of the Republic of Congo. The sites were chosen to illustrate the differing principal modes of forest expansion, corresponding to different levels of anthropic pressure. Methods The study sites were situated on five transects perpendicular to the ecotone (total sampled area: 1.7 ha) and 10 forest clumps in savanna (with diameters from 3 to 20 m). Along the transects botanical identification, diameter measurement and cartography were performed, while leaf area index was measured at a high resolution (every metre) along two of them. Collected data were analysed using a continuous quantification approach, which is much more useful than classical quadrat analysis. Time calibration of progression rates was performed using a simple model of the growth of the characteristic pioneer species, Aucoumea klaineana. Results The two main different modes are reflected in different successional patterns. The edge diffusion is slow (its rate is evaluated to c. 1 m year^?1) and is characterized by a progressive increase in large‐diameter tree density and shade‐tolerant tree density away from the ecotone. Conversely, savanna to forest phase transition by coalescence of clumps exhibits high tree density remnants distributed in established forest. The composition of these remnants is compatible with that of the forest clumps in savannas. Main conclusions Three functional groups of pioneer trees are distinguished: some occupy the edge (edge pioneer), others establish clumps of forest in savanna (clump pioneers) and the longer‐living A. klaineana ensures the transition to ‘mature’ forest. The two different observed patterns (linear edge progression and clump coalescence) can be understood with the use of a model of forest–savanna dynamics, ‘FORSAT’. The two control parameters are the annual rainfall and the frequency of man‐made fires in each savanna. In particular, an increase in the fire frequency can lead to a shift from the coalescence regime to the edge progression one.