Sterol regulatory element-binding protein Sre1 regulates carotenogenesis in the red yeast Xanthophyllomyces dendrorhous

Xanthophyllomyces dendrorhous is a basidiomycete yeast that produces carotenoids, mainly astaxanthin. Astaxanthin is an organic pigment of commercial interest due to its antioxidant and coloring properties. X. dendrorhous has a functional SREBP pathway, and the Sre1 protein is the SREBP homolog in this yeast. However, how sterol regulatory element (Sre)1 promotes the biosynthesis of sterols and carotenoids in X. dendrorhous is unknown. In this work, comparative RNA-sequencing analysis between modified X. dendrorhous strains that have an active Sre1 protein and the WT was performed to identify Sre1-dependent genes. In addition, Sre1 direct target genes were identified through ChIP combined with lambda exonuclease digestion (ChIP-exo) assays. SRE motifs were detected in the promoter regions of several Sre1 direct target genes and were consistent with the SREs described in other yeast species. Sre1 directly regulates genes related to ergosterol biosynthesis as well as genes related to the mevalonate (MVA) pathway, which synthesizes the building blocks of isoprenoids, including carotenoids. Two carotenogenic genes, crtE and crtR, were also identified as Sre1 direct target genes. Thus, carotenogenesis in X. dendrorhous is regulated by Sre1 through the regulation of the MVA pathway and the regulation of the crtE and crtR genes. As the crtR gene encodes a cytochrome P450 reductase, Sre1 regulates pathways that include cytochrome P450 enzymes, such as the biosynthesis of carotenoids and sterols. These results demonstrate that Sre1 is a sterol master regulator that is conserved in X. dendrorhous.     

Structure of the WD40 domain of SCAP from fission yeast reveals the molecular basis for SREBP recognition

The sterol regulatory element-binding protein (SREBP) and SREBP cleavage-activating protein (SCAP) are central players in the SREBP pathway, which control the cellular lipid homeostasis. SCAP binds to SREBP through their carboxyl (C) domains and escorts SREBP from the endoplasmic reticulum to the Golgi upon sterol depletion. A conserved pathway, with the homologues of SREBP and SCAP being Sre1 and Scp1, was identified in fission yeast Schizosaccharomyces pombe. Here we report the in vitro reconstitution of the complex between the C domains of Sre1 and Scp1 as well as the crystal structure of the WD40 domain of Scp1 at 2.1 Å resolution. The structure reveals an eight-bladed β-propeller that exhibits several distinctive features from a canonical WD40 repeat domain. Structural and biochemical characterization led to the identification of two Scp1 elements that are involved in Sre1 recognition, an Arg/Lys-enriched surface patch on the top face of the WD40 propeller and a 30-residue C-terminal tail. The structural and biochemical findings were corroborated by in vivo examinations. These studies serve as a framework for the mechanistic understanding and further functional characterization of the SREBP and SCAP proteins in fission yeast and higher organisms.     

Insig Proteins Mediate Feedback Inhibition of Cholesterol Synthesis in the Intestine

Enterocytes are the only cell type that must balance the de novo synthesis and absorption of cholesterol, although the coordinate regulation of these processes is not well understood. Our previous studies demonstrated that enterocytes respond to the pharmacological blockade of cholesterol absorption by ramping up de novo sterol synthesis through activation of sterol regulatory element-binding protein-2 (SREBP-2). Here, we genetically disrupt both Insig1 and Insig2 in the intestine, two closely related proteins that are required for the feedback inhibition of SREBP and HMG-CoA reductase (HMGR). This double knock-out was achieved by generating mice with an intestine-specific deletion of Insig1 using Villin-Cre in combination with a germ line deletion of Insig2. Deficiency of both Insigs in enterocytes resulted in constitutive activation of SREBP and HMGR, leading to an 11-fold increase in sterol synthesis in the small intestine and producing lipidosis of the intestinal crypts. The intestine-derived cholesterol accumulated in plasma and liver, leading to secondary feedback inhibition of hepatic SREBP2 activity. Pharmacological blockade of cholesterol absorption was unable to further induce the already elevated activities of SREBP-2 or HMGR in Insig-deficient enterocytes. These studies confirm the essential role of Insig proteins in the sterol homeostasis of enterocytes.