蚕豆下表皮细胞外钙调素的存在及其对气孔运动的调节

细胞外钙调素可能作为多肽第一信使,调节细胞增殖、花粉萌发、特定基因表达等生理过程.气孔能灵敏地对外界刺激作出反应,快速开闭.本文用免疫电镜和免疫荧光显微镜技术证明保卫细胞及其它表皮细胞胞外都存在钙调素.外源纯化钙调素能促进气孔关闭、抑制气孔开放,最适浓度为10-8mol/L;不能透过质膜的大分子钙调素拮抗剂W7-agarose和钙调素抗血清都能抑制气孔关闭、促进开放,说明保卫细胞的内源胞外钙调素确实能促进气孔关闭、抑制开放,而且只能在细胞外起作用.推测在自然情况下,保卫细胞内源胞外钙调素可能作为胞外第一信使和其它信号分子一起调节气孔的开关运动,而且可能在环境刺激与细胞响应之间起重要作用.     

拟南芥保卫细胞微丝骨架的解聚可能参与了细胞外钙调素诱导的气孔关闭

细胞外钙调素(CaM)在植物的许多生理活动中都执行着重要功能, 但它对气孔运动的作用及其调控机制, 人们了解的很少. 以模式植物拟南芥为材料, 研究了细胞外CaM在保卫细胞壁上的存在及其对气孔运动的调控机制. 结果表明, 拟南芥保卫细胞壁中存在有分子量为17 kD的CaM, 并应用W7-琼脂糖和CaM抗血清初步证明了保卫细胞壁中存在的CaM可能具有促进气孔关闭和抑制气孔开放的作用. 在应用外源CaM诱导气孔关闭的实验中, 保卫细胞微丝骨架由长而呈辐射状分布的聚合态逐步解聚, 气孔开度也随着降低. 药理学实验结果表明, 保卫细胞微丝骨架的解聚能明显地促进外源CaM诱导的气孔关闭, 而微丝骨架的聚合则抑制这一过程. 研究结果还表明, 外源CaM能诱导保卫细胞[Ca²⁺]_cyt升高; 当使用Ca²⁺螯合剂EGTA时, 外源CaM诱导的[Ca²⁺]_cyt升高和气孔关闭运动均受到抑制. 为此推测细胞外CaM可能是通过诱导保卫细胞[Ca²⁺]_cyt升高, 导致微丝骨架的解聚, 进而促进气孔的关闭运动.     

拟南芥保卫细胞中茉莉酸甲酯诱导的H2O2产生与MAPK信号转导体系的可能关系

蛋白激酶MEK1/2的专一抑制剂PD98059可抑制茉莉酸甲酯(MeJA)诱导的拟南芥保卫细胞中H2O2的产生和气孔的关闭.MeJA和H2O2诱导气孔关闭后,再用PD98059处理,可使关闭的气孔重新开放,同样,外源PD98059处理,能使MeJA诱导增强的H2O2探针的荧光强度降低.此结果表明,类属于MAPKK的蛋白激酶MEK1/2参与了MeJA诱导的拟南芥气孔关闭的信号转导过程,其作用机制可能是通过调节MeJA诱导保卫细胞产生和积累H2O2而起作用.     

H+参与茉莉酸调控蚕豆气孔运动的信号转导

以BCECF-AM为pH的荧光探针,结合激光共聚焦扫描显微技术,研究H 可能参与茉莉酸(JA)调控气孔运动信号转导途径的结果表明,0.1~100μmol·L~(-1)浓度的(-)JA可诱导蚕豆气孔关闭,在引起气孔孔径改变之前,(-)JA能引起蚕豆保卫细胞胞质的碱化;而(±)JA可诱导气孔适当开放,它未引起蚕豆保卫细胞胞质中pH的明显改变。药理学实验证明,质膜上质子泵的抑制剂矾酸钠能减弱(-)JA诱导气孔关闭的作用;而质膜上质子泵的激活剂壳梭孢菌素(fusicoccin)基本上未改变(±)JA的作用趋势。(-)JA和(±)JA刺激保卫细胞胞质Ca2 变化则表现出不同趋势。说明不同异构体形式的JA在调节气孔运动中的作用和信号转导途径有所不同。     

活性氧在气孔运动中的作用

水分代谢是植物基础代谢的重要组成部分,气孔开关精细地调节着植物水分散失和光合作用。气孔运动受到多种因子的调控,保卫细胞内大量的第二信使分子是响应外界刺激、调节保卫细胞代谢方式、改变保卫细胞水势进而引起气孔开关的重要功能组分。细胞内的活性氧就是其中重要的成员之一。保卫细胞中的活性氧包括过氧化氢、超氧阴离子自由基和羟自由基等,这些活性氧可以通过光合作用、呼吸作用产生或通过专门的酶催化合成,在触发下游生理反应、完成信号转导后由专门的酶将其清除。在植物激素(脱落酸、水杨酸)、一氧化氮、质外体钙调素、细胞外ATP等因子调节气孔运动的过程中,活性氧都发挥了介导作用。该文对于近年来活性氧在气孔运动过程中发挥的作用方面的研究进展进行了综述。     

微丝骨架和活性氧在调节气孔运动中的作用及机制

气孔运动调节植物的光合作用和蒸腾作用,对植物的生长发育和干旱等非生物胁迫的响应都起到重要的作用。保卫细胞能够通过感知胞内和胞外多种信号调节气孔开度,因此,保卫细胞已经成为植物细胞信号转导研究中广泛应用的细胞模型。该文对保卫细胞中微丝骨架和活性氧对气孔运动的调节作用、微丝骨架在调节细胞壁与质膜间联系中的作用进行了综述,最后分析了微丝骨架通过ROS(reactive oxygen species)调节保卫细胞壁–质膜联系参与气孔运动调控的可能机制。     

超氧阴离子通过提高[Ca2+]cyt调节保卫细胞K+通道和气孔运动

氧化信号参与了许多生理过程的调控。用膜片钳和激光共聚焦显微镜,采用可以产生O2^ 的甲基紫精处理蚕豆(Vicia faba L)保卫细胞,测定了O2^ 对气孔运动调节过程中胞质Ca^2 离子浓度和细胞质膜K^ 通道活性的变化,结果表明甲基紫精可以促进气孔的关闭,乙二醇四乙酸酯(Ethylene glycol bis(2-aminoethyl)tetra-acetic acid,EGTA)、抗坏血酸(Ascorbic acid,AsA)和过氧化物酶(Catalase,CAT)可以消除小于10^-5mol／L甲基紫精对气孔运动的影响;10^-2和10^-5mol/L的甲基紫精可使保卫细胞胞质Ca^2 浓度有不同程度提高,并伴随有钙震荡。蚕豆气孔保卫细胞质膜内向K^ 通道可被咆外甲基紫精抑制,而这种抑制和[Ca^2 ]cyt有关。推测甲基紫精产生的O2^-对蚕豆气孔运动的调节,主要是通过O2^ 诱导的胞内游离Ca^2 浓度的升高,从而抑制了通过保卫细胞质膜K^ 内向电流。     

外源喜树碱对植物叶片气孔导度的影响

前人研究表明,保卫细胞微管系统在气孔运动中起到重要作用:保卫细胞质膜上内向K⁺通道的正常活性有赖于微管的正常解聚/聚合的动态变化,微管系统可能通过调节保卫细胞K⁺通道而控制气孔运动,即微管解聚导致内向K⁺通道关闭,保卫细胞无法因膨压调节吸收水分而抑制气孔开放。有学者认为,喜树碱或其类似物能够与微管蛋白结合,并降低微管结构稳定性,其机制则可能是抑制细胞高分子量微管结合蛋白对微管组装的辅助作用,但这方面的实验证据相对匮乏。因此,为了进一步研究喜树碱的生态生物化学功能,我们采取叶面喷施喜树碱和PEG模拟干旱诱导气孔关闭的方法,研究了外源喜树碱对喜树幼苗气孔导度的影响,同时以没有内源喜树碱的烟草为实验材料进行了对照研究。研究结果表明:0.0115mmol·L^-1的喜树碱水饱和溶液对喜树和烟草幼苗叶片气孔导度的影响规律一致,均表现出明显的抑制气孔开放的效果,这为喜树碱与微管蛋白结合提供了部分证据。     

钙依赖型蛋白激酶调节保卫细胞膜内向钾离子通道的实验证据

保卫细胞内钙离子浓度的变化对气孔保卫细胞质膜上的内向钾离子通道活性有显著调节作用,而钾离子通道活性的变化可导致细胞渗透压的改变,进而调节气孔的开闭运动。然而,钙离子通过何种机制实现对钾离子通道的调节尚不清楚。作者利用膜片钳全细胞记录方法探讨了钙依赖型蛋白激酶（ＣＤＰＫ）是否参与了钙离子调节保卫细胞钾离子通道的信号转导过程。当胞内钙离子浓度为１．５μｍｏｌ／Ｌ时,保卫细胞全细胞内向钾电流被抑制约６０％;同时加入ＣＤＰＫ的底物组蛋白ⅢＳ或ＣＤＰＫ的底物竞争性抑制剂鱼精蛋白可完全逆转钙离子的作用;但在胞内同时加入纯化的ＣＤＰＫ蛋白则可进一步促进钙离子对保卫细胞内向钾电流的抑制。研究结果初步证明,ＣＤＰＫ介导了钙离子调节保卫细胞内向钾离子通道的信号转导过程     

细胞外钙调素——一种植物中的多肽信使?

钙调素历来被认为是细胞内钙信号的多功能受体蛋白,国内外10多年的研究已证实,它普遍存在于人、动物细胞外与植物质外体.我们的工作证明了钙调素不仅普遍存在于植物细胞外,而且在胞外位点具有促进悬浮培养细胞及其原生质体的增殖、调节花粉萌发与伸长和促进rbc小亚基基因的光不依赖性表达等多种重要生物学功能.在花粉体系中,还证明了胞外钙调素具有跨膜与胞外信号转导机制,其中包括异三聚体G蛋白、PLC/IP3/IP3R和胞内钙信号等组分的参与.因此,认为细胞外钙调素可能是植物中的一种多肽信使,这对传统上认为植物中不存在进行胞间通讯的多肽信使的观点,提出了新的质疑.     

Depolymerization of actin cytoskeleton is involved in stomatal closure-induced by extracellular calmodulin in Arabidopsis

CaM ubiquitously presents inside eukaryotic cells. CaM抯 gene expression and its subcellular localization are regulated by light, osmotic stress, pathogens, plant hormones, etc.[1]. Intracellular CaM of plant displays important functions in pathogenesis and wounding reaction[2] and hypersensitive response[3]. CaM has been found extracellular spaces in many plant species, such as soluble extracts of oat coleoptile cell walls[4], the wheat coleoptile cell walls[5], maize root tips cell walls[6…     

Depolymerization of actin cytoskeleton is involved in stomatal closure-induced by extracellular calmodulin in<Emphasis Type="Italic">Arabidopsis</Emphasis>

Extracellular calmodulin(CaM)plays significant roles in many physiological processes,but little is known about its mechanism of regulating stomatal movements.In this paper,whether CaM exists in the guard cell walls of Arabidopsis and whether depolymerization of actin cytoskeleton is involved in extracellular CaM-induced stomatal closing are investigated.It is found that CaM exists in guard cell walls of Arabidopsis,and its molecular weight is about 17 kD.Bioassay using CaM antagonists W7-agarose and anti-CaM serum shows that the endogenous extracellular CaM promotes stomatal closure and delays stomatal opening.The long radial actin filaments in guard cells undergo disruption in a time-dependent manner during exogenous CaM-induced stomatal closing.Pharmacological experiments show that depolymerization of actin cytoskeleton enhances the effect of exogenous CaM-induced stomatal closing and polymerization reduces the effect.We also find that exogenous CaM triggers an increase in [Ca2+]cyt of guard cells.If [Ca2+]cyt increase is blocked with EGTA,exogenous CaM-induced stomatal closure is inhibited.These results indicate that extracellular CaM causes elevation of [Ca2+]cyt in guard cells,subsequently resulting in disruption of actin filaments and finally leading to guard cells closure.     

Roles of ion channels and transporters in guard cell signal transduction

Stomatal complexes consist of pairs of guard cells and the pore they enclose. Reversible changes in guard cell volume alter the aperture of the pore and provide the major regulatory mechanism for control of gas exchange between the plant and the environment. Stomatal movement is facilitated by the activity of ion channels and ion transporters found in the plasma membrane and vacuolar membrane of guard cells. Progress in recent years has elucidated the molecular identities of many guard cell transport proteins, and described their modulation by various cellular signal transduction components during stomatal opening and closure prompted by environmental and endogenous stimuli.     

Role of Calcium in Signal Transduction of Commelina Guard Cells

The role of cytosolic Ca2+ in signal transduction in stomatal guard cells of Commelina communis was investigated using fluorescence ratio imaging and photometry. By changing extracellular K+, extracellular Ca2+, or treatment with Br-A23187, substantive increases in cytosolic Ca2+ to over 1 micromolar accompanied stomatal closure. The increase in Ca2+ was highest in the cytoplasm around the vacuole and the nucleus. Similar increases were observed when the cells were pretreated with ethyleneglycol-bis-(o-aminoethyl)tetraacetic acid or the channel blocker La3+, together with the closing stimuli. This suggests that a second messenger system operates between the plasma membrane and Ca2+-sequestering organelle(s). The endogenous growth regulator abscisic acid elevated cytosolic Ca2+ levels in a minority of cells investigated, even though stomatal closure always occurred. Ca2+-dependent and Ca2+-independent transduction pathways linking abscisic acid perception to stomatal closure are thus indicated.     

Inward potassium channel in guard cells as a target for polyamine regulation of stomatal movements

A number of studies show that environmental stress conditions such as drought, high salt, and air pollutants increase polyamine levels in plant cells. However, little is understood about the physiological function of elevated polyamine levels. We report here that polyamines regulate the voltage-dependent inward K(+) channel in the plasma membrane of guard cells and modulate stomatal aperture, a plant "sensor" to environmental changes. All natural polyamines, including spermidine, spermine, cadaverine, and putrescine, strongly inhibited opening and induced closure of stomata. Whole-cell patch-clamp analysis showed that intracellular application of polyamines inhibited the inward K(+) current across the plasma membrane of guard cells. Single-channel recording analysis indicated that polyamine regulation of the K(+) channel requires unknown cytoplasmic factors. In an effort to identify the target channel at the molecular level, we found that spermidine inhibited the inward K(+) current carried by KAT1 channel that was functionally expressed in a plant cell model. These findings suggest that polyamines target KAT1-like inward K(+) channels in guard cells and modulate stomatal movements, providing a link between stress conditions, polyamine levels, and stomatal regulation.     

Evidence for an Extracellular Reception Site for Abscisic Acid in Commelina Guard Cells

The phytohormone abscisic acid (ABA) triggers stomatal closing as a physiological response to drought stress. Several basic questions limit an understanding of the mechanism of ABA reception in guard cells. Whether primary ABA receptors are located on the extracellular side of the plasma membrane, within the intracellular space of guard cells, or both remains unknown. Furthermore, it is not clear whether ABA must be transported into guard cells to exert control over stomatal movements. In the present study, a combination of microinjection into guard cells and physiological assays of stomatal movements have been performed to determine primary sites of ABA reception in guard cells. Microinjection of ABA into guard cells of Commelina communis L. resulted in injected cytosolic concentrations of 50 to 200 [mu]M ABA and in additional experiments in lower concentrations of approximately 1 [mu]M ABA. Stomata with ABA-loaded guard cells (n > 180) showed opening similar to stomata with uninjected guard cells. The viability of guard cells following ABA injection was demonstrated by neutral red staining as well as monitoring of stomatal opening. Extracellular application of 10 [mu]M ABA inhibited stomatal opening by 98% at pH 6.15 and by 57% at pH 8.0. The pH dependence of extracellular ABA action may suggest a contribution of an intracellular ABA receptor to stomatal regulation. The findings presented here show that intracellular ABA alone does not suffice to inhibit stomatal opening under the imposed conditions. Furthermore, these data provide evidence that a reception site for ABA-mediated inhibition of stomatal opening is on the extracellular side of the plasma membrane of guard cells.     

Calcium ions as second messengers in guard cell signal transduction

Ca²⁺ is a ubiquitous second messenger in plant cell signalling. In this review we consider the role of Ca²⁺-based signal transduction in stomatal guard cells focusing on three important areas: (1) the regulation of guard cell turgor relations and the control of gene expression in guard cells, (2) the control of specificity in Ca²⁺ signalling, (3) emerging technologies and new approaches for studying intracellular signalling. Stomatal apertures alter in response to a wide array of environmental stimuli as a result of changes in guard cell turgor. For example, the plant hormone abscisic acid (ABA) stimulates a reduction in stomatal aperture through a decrease in guard cell turgor. Furthermore, guard cells have been shown to be competent to relay an ABA signal from its site of perception to the nucleus. An increase in the concentration of cytosolic free Ca²⁺ ([Ca²⁺]₁) is central to the mechanisms underlying ABA-induced changes in guard cell turgor. We describe a possible model of Ca²⁺-based ABA signal transduction during stomatal closure and discuss recent evidence which suggests that Ca²⁺ is also involved in ABA nuclear signal transduction. Many other environmental stimuli which affect stomatal apertures, in addition to ABA, induce an increase in guard cell [Ca²⁺]₁) This raises questions regarding how increases in [Ca²⁺]₁) can be a common component in the signal transduction pathways by which stimuli cause both stomatal opening and closure. We discuss several mechanisms of increasing the amount of information contained within the Ca²⁺ signal, including encoding information in a stimulus-specific Ca²⁺ signal or Ca²⁺ signature', the concept of the ‘physiological address’ of the cell, and the use of other second messengers. We conclude by addressing the emerging technologies and new approaches which can be used in conjunction with guard cells to dissect further the molecular mechanisms of Ca²⁺-mediated signalling in plants.     

A reassessment of the intervention of calmodulin in the regulation of stomatal movement

Commelina cammunis L., a monocotyledonous plant whose stomata are highly sensitive to calcium ions, was used to study calmodulin (CaM) involvement in stomatal movements. CaM was detected and quantified in guard cell and mesophyll cell protoplasts by western blot and by ⁴⁵Ca²⁺-overlays. CaM was found to be 3- to 7-fold more abundant on a per protein basis in guard cell than in mesophyll cell protoplasts. Numerous guard cell proteins that bind CaM in a Ca²⁺-dependent manner were detected by gold-labelled CaM overlays. Using bioassays with epidermal strips, different CaM-antagonists were found to induce a net stimulation of stomatal opening in darkness or under illumination (trifluoperazine > compound 48/80 ∼ fluphenazine > W7 > W5). As CaM is frequently involved in the regulation of phosphorylation processes, the effects of different inhibitors of protein kinases on stomatal movements were studied. In red plus blue light, a promotion of the stomatal aperture was observed in the nanomolar range with K252a and KT5926 and in the micromolar range with KT5720 ≫ ML7 ∼ ML9 ≫ H7 > KN62. Only the inhibitors with a high specificity for Ca²⁺-CaM dependent protein kinases (K252a, KT5926, ML7, ML9) triggered a stomatal opening in darkness and increased stomatal aperture in red plus blue light. Taken together, these data strongly suggest that a Ca²⁺- or a Ca²⁺-CaM-dependent protein kinase plays a central role in the calcium transduction pathway leading to the maintaining of stomatal closure.     

A reassessment of the intervention of calmodulin in the regulation of stomatal movement

Commelina cammunis L., a monocotyledonous plant whose stomata are highly sensitive to calcium ions, was used to study calmodulin (CaM) involvement in stomatal movements. CaM was detected and quantified in guard cell and mesophyll cell protoplasts by western blot and by ⁴⁵Ca²⁺-overlays. CaM was found to be 3- to 7-fold more abundant on a per protein basis in guard cell than in mesophyll cell protoplasts. Numerous guard cell proteins that bind CaM in a Ca²⁺-dependent manner were detected by gold-labelled CaM overlays. Using bioassays with epidermal strips, different CaM-antagonists were found to induce a net stimulation of stomatal opening in darkness or under illumination (trifluoperazine > compound 48/80 ≅ fluphenazine > W7 > W5). As CaM is frequently involved in the regulation of phosphorylation processes, the effects of different inhibitors of protein kinases on stomatal movements were studied. In red plus blue light, a promotion of the stomatal aperture was observed in the nanomolar range with K252a and KT5926 and in the micromolar range with KT5720 ≫ ML7 ≅ ML9 ≫ H7 > KN62. Only the inhibitors with a high specificity for Ca²⁺-CaM dependent protein kinases (K252a, KT5926, ML7, ML9) triggered a stomatal opening in darkness and increased stomatal aperture in red plus blue light. Taken together, these data strongly suggest that a Ca²⁺- or a Ca²⁺-CaM-dependent protein kinase plays a central role in the calcium transduction pathway leading to the maintaining of stomatal closure.