Natural occurrence of fumonisins and their correlation to Fusarium contamination in commercial corn hybrids growth in Argentina

Fifty commercial corn hybrids with different endosperm characteristics, vegetative cycle length and cross class grown in the same geographical area (Cordoba Province, Argentina) were analysed for fumonisin accumulation. All hybrids analysed showed fumonisin B₁ and B₂ contamination ranging from 185 to 27,050 ng/g for FB₁ and from 40 to 9950 ng/g for FB₂. Although most of the hybrids analysed had flint-type endosperm, two hybrids with dent-type endosperm (e.g. Prozea 10 and AX 746) showed the highest level of fumonisin (37,000 ng/g) and more FB₂ than FB₁ (FB₂/FB₁ ratio 2.42), respectively. There was no correlation between fumonisin concentration and length of the vegetative cycle. Among 18 hybrids examined for Fusarium species contamination there was also no correlation between fumonisin contamination and the level of infection with Fusarium species (Section Liseola). Eighteen hybrids showed fumonisin levels lower than 1000 ng/g. This result suggests that there is some possibility of selecting hybrids resistant or less susceptible to fumonisin and Fusarium contamination.     

Effect of<Emphasis Type="Italic">in vitro</Emphasis> digestion on fumonisin B<Subscript>1</Subscript> in corn flakes

Low levels of fumonisins have been found frequently in corn based breakfast cereals and can occur bound to protein and other matrix components.In vitro digestion of two samples of corn flakes was carried out under "fed conditions." Fumonisins were measured as o-phthaldialdehyde/mercaptoethanol derivatives by LC-fluorescence. One sample of corn flakes (FN12) had high concentrations of fumonisin B₁ (FB) (average 125 ng/g) and total bound FB₁, (TB FB₁) (average 92 ng/g) and the other (FN11) had a low level of free FB₁ (average 29 ng/g) and no detectable TB FB₁. After incubation of the samples with gastrointestinal tract solutions simulating saliva plus stomach and duodenal juices, chyme was analysed for FB₁, hydrolyzed FB₁ (HFB₁) and partially hydrolyzed fumonisin B₁ (PHFB₁). The bioaccessibility (percentage of FB₁ released from corn flakes into chyme) was 38-78% for incurred FB₁ in FN12, 8-54% for incurred plus spiked FB₁ in FN12, and 19-66% for incurred plus spiked FB₁ in FN11. HFB₁ and PHFB₁ were not detected. If free FB₁ was first extracted from sample FN12, no FB1 was detected in the chyme, indicating no contribution from TB FB₁. Concentrations were corrected for method recovery of FB₁ or, for bound FB₁, partial method recovery of HFB₁ Presented at the XIIth IUPAC International Symposium on Mycotoxins and Phycotoxins, Istanbul, Turkey, 21–25 May, 2007     

Production of fumonisins byFusarium species of Taiwan

Twenty-nineFusarium species isolated from various sources in different districts of Taiwan were tested for their ability to produce fumonisins in corn cultures. OnlyFusarium moniliforme produced fumonisin B₁ (FB₁) and fumonisin B₂ (FB₂). The finding that the other 28Fusarium species produced neither FB₁ nor FB₂ is preliminary because only one strain per species was studied. The detection of FB₁ and FB₂ in cultures ofF. moniliforme was demonstrated by TLC and HPLC, and FB₁ was further confirmed by mass spectrometry. In a separate experiment, in which 38 strains ofF. moniliforme were tested for fumonisins, approximately 66% (25/38) produced FB₁ and/or FB₂. Of the 25 strains, 14 produced only FB₁ and 11 produced both FB₁ and FB₂, and the amounts of FB₁ and FB₂ produced by different strains varied greatly. This is the first report that fumonisins are found in corn cultures experimentally infected withF. moniliforme strains from Taiwan. It is safe to assume that fumonisin producing strains ofF. moniliforme are widely distributed among the economic crops such as corn, rice, sugarcane, and sorghum throughout the Island.Abbreviations FB₁ Fumonisin B₁ - FB₂ Fumonisin B₂ - OPA o-phthalidialdehyde     

Mycoflora and fumonisin-producing strains ofFusarium moniliforme in mixed poultry feeds and component raw material

In a survey of the mycoflora and mycotoxins in foods and feeds, 66 samples of mixed poultry feeds and some component raw materials were investigated. Fungal counts ranged from < 10² to 1.3 × 10⁶ CFU/g.Fusarium spp. counts ranged from 10² to 1.0 × 10⁶ CFU/g. TheFusarium spp. strains isolated were screened for their potential to produce fumonisin B₁ (FB₁) and fumonisin B₂ (FB₂) in maize cultures. Samples and maize cultures were analysed for FB₁ and FB₂ using TLC and fluorescamine-derivative HPLC. No fumonisins were detected in the samples (<6 ppm).Fusarium moniliforme was isolated in 59.1% of samples, and 97.4% of the strains produced FB₁ and 79.4% of strains produced FB₂ in maize cultures. Some isolates produced higher FB₁ and FB₂ levels than the reference strainF. moniliforme MRC 826.     

Trends of fumonisin contamination and animal intoxication through monitoring 1991 to 1997 corn crop in the State of Paraná, Brazil

Eleven feed samples associated with six animal (horse and poultry) intoxication outbreaks (1991) in the state of Paraná, Brazil, were evaluated for fungal and fumonisin contamination. In order to estimate the␣trend of livestock intoxication, fumonisin contamination was monitored in corn produced both at the commercial level (1991, 1995 crop), and in an experimental field at a local Agronomy Institute (1997 crop). The total mould count in the feed samples ranged from 2.9 × 10³ to 1.9 × 10⁷ CFU/g, with Fusarium verticillioides as the predominant species, at a high count of 2.4 × 10⁴–6.5 × 10⁵ CFU/g. Fumonisins (FB₁ + FB₂) were detected in all corn-based feed samples at levels ranging from 2.89 to 14.54 μg/g. All 27 Northern corn samples (1991 crop) were contaminated with fumonisins at levels ranging from 2.32 to 16.64 μg/g. Twenty-six (96.3%) out of 27 corn samples from the Central-Southern region (1995 crop) were positive for fumonisins (FB₁+FB₂), with the range of 0.07–3.66 μg/g, while all 37 Northern samples (1995 crop) were contaminated with fumonisins ranging from 0.57 to 9.97 μg/g. Twenty-one out of 37 corn samples from the Northern region (1997 crop) were positive for fumonisins, but at low level (range of 0.05–2.67 μg/g). The results showed a decreasing trend in fumonisin contamination over the years. Nowadays animal intoxication outbreaks rarely occur in this State, as both animal producers and feed industries have become conscious about monitoring of corn and other raw materials at the quality control level.     

A limited survey of fumonisins in corn and corn-based products in Asian countries

Natural occurrence of fumonisins B₁ (FB₁) and B₂ (FB₂), a promoter for hepato-carcinogenesis, was investigated in corn and corn — based products sampled in Japan, Nepal, and China by high — performance liquid chromatographic method. From the 9 imported corn kernel and 6 gluten feed samples, FB₁ was detected in 8 corn (0.6 ～ 4.1μg/g) and all gluten feed (0.3 ～ 2.4μg/g) samples, while FB₂ was found in the same corn (0.3 ～ 10μg/g) and 3 gluten feed (0.8 ～ 8.5μg/g) samples. ELISA analysis also revealed the contamination of aflatoxin B₁ in 2 corn and all gluten feed samples along with fumonisins. Of 17 corn grit samples, 14 and 5 samples were contaminated with fumonisin B₁ and B₂, with maximum levels of 2.6 and 2.8μg/g, respectively. As for corn-based foodstuffs marketed in Japan, no significant contamination of fumonisins was observed. Among 24 corn kernel samples in Nepal, 12 and 7 samples were positive for FB₁ and FB₂, and averaged to 0.6 and 1.6μg/g, respectively. One sample showed the highest fumonisin contents as 4.6 and 5.5μg/g, respectively. In corn samples harvested at Shanghai and Beijing, China, FB₁ and FB₂ were detected in various concentrations. Mycological survey has also revealed the presence of a fumonisin — producing fungus in a crop field of Japan. These findings have for the first time demonstrated high levels of contamination of fumonisins in corn and corn — based products in Asian countries. Natural co — occurrence of fumonisins and aflatoxin B₁ was also detected in raw materials for mixed feed.     

Production of fumonisin B1 and B2 byFusarium moniliforme isolated from Korean corn kerneis for feed

The natural occurrence of fumonisin B₁ (FB₁) and B₂ (FB₂), a promoter for hepatocarcinogenesis, was investigated in Korean corn kernels for feed by HPLC with fluorescence detection. From the 12 corn kernel samples, FB₁ was detected in 5 samples at levels ranging from 53 to 1327ng/g, while FB₂ was found in 4 samples from 69 to 680ng/g. In the positive samples, the average concentrations of FB₁ and FB₂ were 506 and 288ng/g, respectively. One sample (No. K3) showed the highest FB₁ and FB₂ contents as 1327 and 680ng/g, respectively. In the micrological survey on 5 positive samples for FB₁ and FB₂, 6 strains ofFusarium monlliforme were isolated, and all these isolates had a producibility of FB₁ and FB₁, with maximum levels of 80.7 to 180.9 g/g.Thisis the first report on the natural co-contamination of FB₁ and FB₂ in Korean corn kernels for feed, and on the ability ofF. moniliforme isolated from corn kernels for feed in Korea to produce FB₁ and FB₂.     

Ear-rot fungi and mycotoxins in South African corn of the 1989 crop exported to Taiwan

A shipment of South African corn (1989) exported to Taiwan, was analyzed for various ear-rot fungi andFusarium mycotoxins. Two sets of samples, one from the points of origin in South Africa prior to shipment, and the other from the end-point distributors in Taiwan, were studied. Surface-sterilized kernels were plated onto two different agar media and the fungal colonies identified. High Performance Liquid Chromatography was used to analyze mycotoxin levels. The predominant ear-rot fungi, in decreasing order of isolation frequency, wereFusarium subglutinans, F. moniliforme, Diplodia maydis andF. graminearum. Aspergillus flavus andA. parasiticus were not isolated from samples prior to export, but a small number ofA. flavus isolates were found after shipment. The predominant mycotoxins were fumonisins B₁ (0–865 ng/g) and B₂ (0–250 ng/g). Low levels of moniliformin (390 ng/g) were detected in some samples before shipment. Zearalenone (25 ng/g), and nivalenol (120 ng/g) were detected in two out of 32 samples taken in Taiwan. The samples contained no detectable levels of either aflatoxins (>0.5 ng/g) or deoxynivalenol (>100 ng/g) before or after shipment.Abbreviations RSA South Africa(n) - FB₁ fumonisin B₁ - FB₂ fumonisin B₂ - ETVL eastern Transvaal - WTVL western Transvaal     

Fumonisin mycotoxins in human hair

This study shows for the first time the accumulation of fumonisin mycotoxins in human hair of population clusters exposed to contaminated maize, and thus the feasibility of human hair analysis for the assessment of past fumonisin exposure. Composite hair samples were obtained from the Bizana, Butterworth and Centane districts within the Transkei region of the Eastern Cape Province of South Africa. Following methanol extraction and strong anion exchange clean up, the fumonisins FB₁, FB₂ and FB₃ were detected using high performance liquid chromatography coupled to electrospray ionization-mass spectrometry (HPLC-ESI-MS). Hair from Centane and Butterworth showed mean levels of FB₁ of 26.7 and 23.5 μg kg^?1 hair, respectively. FB₂ was only detected in hair from Centane and in one sampling point in Butterworth, with mean levels of 6.5 and 5.7 μg kg^?1 hair, respectively. Hair samples from Bizana, on the other hand, were found to contain higher levels of FB 1 (mean 33.0 μg kg^?1 hair) and FB 2 (mean 11.1 μg kg^?1 hair). No samples contained more than trace levels of FB 3 . Recoveries from spiked hair samples using this method ranged from 81% to 101%, demonstrating the applicability of hair analysis in assessing human exposure to fumonisin mycotoxins.     

Fumonisins: Isolation,chemical characterization and biological effects

The fumonisin B mycotoxins (FB₁ and FB₂) have been purified and characterized from corn cultures of Fusarium moniliforme strain MRC 826. Fumonisin B₁ (FB₁, the major fumonisin produced in culture, has been shown to be responsible for the major toxicological effects of the fungus in rats, horses and pigs. Recent investigations on the purification of compounds with chromatographic characteristics similar to FB₁ have led to the identification of two new fumonisins, FB₃ and FB₄. Fumonisins A₁ and A₂, the N-acetyl derivatives of FB₁ and FB₂ respectively, were also purified and shown to be secondary metabolites of the fungus. Short-term carcinogenesis studies in a rat liver bioassay indicated that over a period of 15 to 20 days, at dietary levels of 0.05–0.1%, FB₂ and FB₃ closely mimic the toxicological and cancer initiating activity of FB₁ and thus could contribute to the toxicological effects of the fungus in animals. In contrast, no biological activity could be detected for FA₁ under identical experimental conditions. These studies and others have indicated that the fumonisin B mycotoxins, although lacking mutagenicity in the Salmonella test or genotoxicity in the DNA repair assays in primary hepatocytes, appear to induce resistant hepatocytes similar to many known hepatocarcinogens.     

Occurrence of Fumonisin B<Subscript>1</Subscript> in Corn from the Main Corn-Producing Areas of China

Fumonisin B₁ (FB₁) is the most abundant of the fumonisin mycotoxins, mainly produced in maize by F. verticillioides and F. proliferatum. A total of 282 corn samples harvested in 2005 from six provinces, the main corn-producing areas of China, were analyzed for FB₁ using high-performance liquid chromatography. All samples except one were (99.6%) positive for FB₁ at levels varying from 3 to 71,121 ng/g with mean and median levels for all samples of 6,662 and 1,569 ng/g, respectively. During an analysis of the distribution pattern for FB₁, it became apparent that 43.6% of tested samples had FB₁ concentrations below 1,000 ng/g, while 25.2% contained in excess of 5,000 ng/g. The average exposure to FB₁ (1.1 μg/kg body weight/day) is within the provisional maximum tolerable daily intake of 2 μg/kg body weight/day set by the Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives.     

Mortality in broiler chicks on feed amended withFusarium proliferatum culture material or with purified fumonisin B1 and moniliformin

Two hundred twenty-eight male chicks (Columbia × New Hampshire) were given feed amended with autoclaved culture material (CM) ofFusarium proliferatum Containing fumonisin B₁ (FB₁), fumonisin B₂ (FB₂) and moniliformin in 3 separate feeding trials. Purified FB₁ and moniliformin were given separately and in combination in a fourth feeding trial. Birds were given amended rations at day 1 (Trial 1 and 4), day 7 (Trial 2), and day 21 (Trial 3) and their respective ration was given for 28 days (Trial 1), 21 days (Trial 2), 7 days (Trial 3), and 14 days (Trial 4). FB₁ concentrations were 546, 193, and 61 ppm; FB₂ were 98, 38 and 14 ppm; and moniliformin were 367, 193, and 66 ppm in the first 3 feeding trial regimens. Chicks in Trial 4 were given dietary concentrations of purified FB₁ at 274 and 125 ppm, and moniliformin at 154 and 27 ppm. FB₁ and moniliformin, both alone and in combination, produced dose-responsive clinical signs, reduced weight gains and mortality in chicks. Age of birds given amended feeds had little difference in the clinical response; however, those given the rations from days 7 or 21 were slightly less susceptible than those given rations beginning at 1 day of age. Additive effects were noted when the toxins were given in combination. When toxins were given separately, adverse effects took longer to occur. A system to monitor pattern and rate of defecation (RD) was developed for assessing the chicks' approach to feed, water and heat source as illness progressed. Our results indicate that chicks fed corn heavily infected withF. proliferatum under field conditions could suffer acute death similar to that described for spiking mortality syndrome during the first 3 weeks of age.     

Lymphocyte cytotoxicity and erythrocytic abnormalities induced in broiler chicks by fumonisins B1 and B2 and moniliformin fromFusarium proliferatum

Peripheral blood lymphocytes were isolated from broiler chicks that had ingested feed amended with autoclavedFusarium proliferatum culture material containing fumonisin B₁ (FB₁), fumonisin B₂ (FB₂) and moniliformin. Lymphocyte viability was determined for birds that were placed on amended rations at day 1 or day 7 of age at three different levels of mycotoxins, ranging from 61–546 ppm FB₁, 14–94 ppm FB₂ and 66–367 ppm moniliformin. Reduction of the tetrazolium salt, MTT [3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyl tetrazolium bromide], to yield MTT formazan, based on mitochondrial metabolic activity, was used to assess cell viability. Lymphocyte cytotoxic effects were observed in all treatment groups on day 21; chicks that started on amended feed at day 1 of age were affected more than those that started at day 7. Abnormal erythrocytes resembling early stages of erythroblasts were observed in peripheral blood from test chicks. Abnormally shaped red cells (poikilocytes) having a spindle-shape with one or both ends pointed were present. Some red cells appeared to be undergoing mitosis. Both reduced lymphocyte viability and abnormal erythrogenesis occurred in chicks given feed amended withF. proliferatum culture material containing FB₁, FB₂ and moniliformin.     

Zearalenone, deoxynivalenol and fumonisins in mixed-feed for laying hens

Fusarium toxins are secondary metabolites produced byfungi of these genera in many commodities under certain conditions. A study was carried out to investigate the co-occurrence of zearalenone (ZEN), deoxynivalenol (DON) and fumonisins (FB₁ and FB₂) in 52 samples of mixed-feed for poultry contaminated withFusarium verticillioides. The zearalenone and deoxynivalenol were checked using immunoaffinity column and the extraction of fumonisin was performed by strong anion exchange (SAX) solid phase column. Detection and quantification were determined by high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC). The limit of detection was 5 μg/kg for ZEN, 100 μg/kg for DON and 50 and 100 μg/kg for FB₁ and FB₂ respectively.Fusarium toxins were detected in 20 samples. Sixteen samples were positive for ZEN (30.7%) presenting levels that ranged from 7.4 μg/kg to 61.4 μg/kg (mean=27.0 μg/kg). 13.5% of the samples presented contaminations of DON, with levels ranging from 100.0 μg/kg to 253 μg/kg (mean=l18.07 μg/kg). FB₁ was detected in 19.2% of samples, with levels ranging from 50.0 μg/kg to 110.0 μg/kg (mean=73.6 μg/kg). FB2 was not detected in any sample. In positive samples simultaneously contamination with two or three mycotoxins were detected in 9 of them (17.3%).     

Ochratoxin A and fumonisins (B1 and B2) in maize from Balkan nephropathy endemic and non endemic areas of Croatia

The occurrence of ochratoxin A, fumonisin B1 and B2 has been investigated in maize samples collected in 1996 (105 samples) and 1997 (104 samples) in 14 counties of Croatia, including Brodsko-Posavska county, the main area of Balkan endemic nephropathy in Croatia. Ochratoxin A and fumonisins co-occurred in 21% of the examined samples. In particular, ochratoxin A (OTA) was found in 10 samples (10%) of the 1996 and 36 samples (35%) of the 1997 crops with mean concentrations of positive samples of 37.9 ng/g and 57.1 ng/g, and highest concentrations at 223.6 ng/g and 613.7 ng/g, respectively. Similar incidence of OTA contamination was observed in 1996 samples from both endemic and non endemic areas of Balkan nephropathy, whereas a significant difference (P<0.01) was found between the two areas in 1997, with 50% and 20% incidence of contamination in the endemic and non endemic area, respectively, and relevant OTA mean concentration of positive samples of 73.4 ng/g and 20.2 ng/g. High incidence of infection byPenicillium spp. (potential OTA producers) was found in all tested samples, with mean values of 88% and 93% in samples of 1996 and 1997, respectively. With respect to fumonisin B1 (FB1) and B2 (FB2) all but one of the 1996 samples were contaminated, with highest and mean concentrations of positive samples (FB1+FB2) at 11661 ng/g and 645 ng/g, respectively. Similar incidence of positive samples (93%), but lower contamination levels (mean 134 ng/g, maximum 2524 ng/g) were found in 1997 samples. The results of fumonisin analysis were in agreement with the mycological analysis showing higher incidence of Fusarium infection in samples of 1996 with respect to those of 1997. These data provide additional information on the occurrence of ochratoxin A in Balkan endemic nephropathy areas and, for the first time, its co-occurrence with other nephrotoxic compounds, such as fumonisins, that may contribute to the disease development. However the finding of these mycotoxins in the non-endemic areas, also at high levels, do not allow to draw a conclusion about their role in the etiology of the disease.     

Natural occurrence of Fusarium species and fumonisin-production by toxigenic strains isolated from poultry feeds in Argentina

Fusarium species and fumonisin production by toxigenic strains were investigated. During 1996–1998, 158 samples of poultry feeds were collected from a factory located in the department of Río Cuarto Córdoba province, Argentina. The most common species of Fusarium were F. moniliforme (60.7%) and F. nygamai (35.4%) followed by F. semitectum, F. subglutinans, F. proliferatum, F. dlamini, F. solani, F. oxysporum and F. napiforme. Fungal counts ranged from 1 × 10³ to 8 × 10⁵ CFU/g with mean values from 1.5 × 10³ to 2.3 × 10⁵ CFU/g. The highest counts were for F. dlamini, F. subglutinans, F. moniliforme and F. nygamai. Strains of F. moniliforme, F. nygamai, and F. proliferatum were screened for their potential to produce fumonisin B₁ (FB₁), fumonisin B₂ (FB₂) and fumonisin B₃ (FB₃) in corn grain. The samples were analysed using a modified high performance liquid chromatography method. The strains assayed, 43 strains, produced three fumonisins. There was a high degree of variability in the quantities of FB₁, FB₂, and FB₃ produced. The toxin produced in highest levels by the majority of the strains was FB₁. The range of concentration varied from 5.4 to 3,991, 1.01 to 189 and 0.4 to 765 ppm per gram of corn for FB₁, FB₂ and FB₃ respectively. The toxigenic pattern of strains was normal, although two strains of F. moniliforme produced exceptionally high concentrations of FB₃ and minor concentrations of FB₂ and FB₁. This is the first report from Argentina on Fusarium species in poultry feeds and fumonisin production by these strains.This revised version was published online in October 2005 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

Fumonisin B1 alters sphingolipid metabolism and immune function in BALB/c mice: Immunological responses to fumonisin B1

Fumonisins have been reported to have diverse effects on animals, including immunosuppression in chickens and feeder calves; therefore, the effects of fumonisin B₁ (FB₁) on immune function in BALB/c mice was investigated. When administered i.p. with sheep red blood cells (SRBC), 5 to 100 µg of FB₁ reduced the number of plaque-forming cells (PFC) produced against SRBC; however, when administered daily, 1 to 50 µg of FB₁ caused a 4 to 12-fold increase in the number of PFC after SRBC injection. Therefore, FB₁ is not only immunosuppressive; but also, immunostimulatory. To test the possibility that there may have been an immune response to FB₁ as an antigen, FB₁ was injected into mice and the number of splenic cells forming rosettes on FB₁-treated SRBC was determined. There were dose-dependent increases in the antigen-binding cells, with up to 4.9- and 4.6-fold increases, respectively, upon primary and secondary immunization. FB₁-binding immunoglobulins could be detected in sera from some treated mice, but this response was not obtained in every experiment. In summary, these results show that FB₁ has diverse effects on the immune system, causing both stimulation and suppression of the response to foreign antigens, and apparently inducing an antigenic response to FB₁.Abbreviations DMEM Dulbecco's Modified Eagle's Medium - FB₁ fumonisin B₁ - FCS fetal calf serum - PBS phosphate buffered saline - PFC plaque forming cells - RFC rosette forming cells - SRBC sheep red blood cells     

A review and update of animal toxicoses associated with fumonisin-contaminated feeds and production of fumonisins by Fusarium isolates

During the 1989 corn harvest season, numerous reports of equine leukoencephalomalacia (ELEM) outbreaks and a pulmonary edema (PPE) syndrome in swine from several regions of the United States were received by the National Veterinary Services Laboratories (NVSL), Ames, Iowa. Previous and concurrent research linked Fusarium moniliforme and fumonisin-contaminated feeds to both diseases. Chemical and mycological investigations revealed fumonisin B₁ (FB₁) concentrations of 20 to 360 ppm in suspect swine feeds and 8 to 117 ppm in suspect equine feeds. Nonproblem feeds contained concentrations below 8 ppm. Fusarium moniliforme and Fusarium proliferatum were isolated from both problem and nonproblem equine and swine feeds. When cultured on autoclaved corn, the F. moniliforme and F. proliferatum isolates produced respective FB₁ and fumonisin B₂ (FB₂) that range from less than 5 to more than 2450 ppm and less than 5 to more than 1000 ppm, respectively. Isolates from both problem and nonproblem feeds produced high levels (greater than 500 ppm) in culture. Reported here is a review of chemical and mycological data resulting from the study of several cases of PPE and ELEM.     

Occurrence of Fusarium Mycotoxin Fumonisin B1 and B2 in Animal Feeds in Korea

The objective of this study was to monitor the occurrence and levels of fumonisin B₁ (FB₁) and fumonisin B₂ (FB₂) in animal feeds distributed in South Korea in 2011. The contamination levels of FB₁ and FB₂ were investigated in 150 samples of compound feeds and in 40 samples of feed ingredients. The contamination rate of feed ingredients with FB₁ and FB₂ was 50 and 40 %, respectively. FB₂ was only found in samples contaminated with FB₁. Of the compound feeds, 85 % were contaminated by FB₁ and 47 % were contaminated by FB₂. The highest contamination rate of FBs was observed in compound feeds for cattle (FB₁: 100 %; FB₂: 80 %), followed by poultry feed (FB₁: 78 %; FB₂: 40 %) and swine feed (FB₁: 76 %; FB₂: 22 %). The highest contamination level (14,600 ng/g) for FB₁ were found in poultry broiler feed (early feeding period) samples, which had 82 % contamination rate (9/11), and the highest level of FB₂ (2,280 ng/g) was found in feed for fatting calves,which had a contamination rate of 100 %.     

Fumonisins in Maize in Relation to Climate,Planting Time and Hybrids in Two Agroecological Zones in Zambia

Field experiments in the high rainfall zone (HRZ) and the medium rainfall zone (MRZ) in Zambia were designed to determine the natural occurrence of fumonisins (FB_1–2) in Zambian maize hybrids, accumulation of FB_1–2 resulting from artificial inoculation with Fusarium verticillioides and effects of climate and planting time on FB_1–2 in maize. Combined FB_1–2 concentrations varied from 0 to 13,050 ng/g, with an overall mean of 666 ng/g. Maize from the HRZ had low incidences of FB_1–2-positive samples (mean 41%) which contained FB_1–2 below 500 ng/g. In the MRZ, higher incidences (mean 97%) and concentrations (40% of samples >1,000 ng/g) were recorded in two out of three years. There was no correlation between mean location FB_1–2 concentrations in individual years and precipitation, number of rain days or monthly precipitation. Postponing the planting time with 10 or 20 days did not significantly affect FB_1–2 concentration, but it reduced the yields in some years.