Isolation and characterization of a laccase-derepressed mutant of Neurospora crassa.

Laccase from the ascomycete Neurospora crassa is an inducible secretory enzyme. Production of this enzyme is repressed in vegetative cultures but can be induced by treatment with low concentrations of cycloheximide. Isolation and characterization of a derepressed mutant, the lah-1 mutant, that is capable of producing laccase in vegetative cultures without induction by cycloheximide are described. The lah-1 mutation is mapped between nit-2 and leu-3 on linkage group I, and it behaved as a recessive mutation in a forced heterokaryon. No differences were detected biochemically or immunologically between the laccase protein produced by the lah-1 mutant in the absence of cycloheximide and that induced with cycloheximide in the wild-type strain. This suggests that both laccases (66 kilodaltons) are products of the same structural gene. Relative amounts of laccase in the culture filtrate of the lah-1 mutant were much higher than those induced with cycloheximide in the wild-type strain, demonstrating high efficiency of the lah-1 mutant in production and secretion of laccase. The time course of laccase production by the lah-1 mutant revealed that expression of 66-kilodalton laccase was repressed in conidia and derepressed during vegetative mycelial growth. This suggests that a multiple regulatory mechanism is involved in the production and/or maturation of Neurospora laccase. The lah-1 mutant may be useful for identifying genes that regulate expression of the laccase gene in N. crassa.     

黄孢原毛平革菌突变株抗碳氮营养阻遏产漆酶碳氮生理调控机理

【目的】通过比较不同碳氮营养及其消耗对产漆酶的影响,了解白腐菌模式种黄孢原毛平革菌解除营养阻遏产漆酶代谢的生理生态特性,揭示白腐菌合成漆酶的碳氮生理调控机理。【方法】分别利用限碳限氮(CL-NL)、限碳富氮(CL-NS)、富碳限氮(CS-NL)与富碳富氮(CS-NS)4种条件培养黄孢原毛平革菌野生型(WT)与突变株,比较两者产漆酶动力学、菌体生长、葡萄糖与氨氮消耗差异及其相关性来揭示解除营养阻遏产漆酶调控生理特性,明确C、N营养对产漆酶的生理调控途径。【结果】突变菌株除消耗速率比野生型略慢外,两者氨消耗趋势一致,但对葡萄糖的消耗比野生型快且氨氮浓度对葡萄糖的消耗影响不大。在CL-NL、CL-NS、CS-NL、CS-NS 4种培养条件下,野生型分别在培养后期的第11、14、19和19天的次生代谢时期产生0.107、0.029、12.84和18.05U/L漆酶,启动漆酶合成及酶峰值出现的时间与基质中葡萄糖耗尽或接近耗尽的时刻,或同氨氮消耗至最低值的时刻相对应;与WT产漆酶特性不同,突变株产漆酶伴随整个培养过程且均有两个产酶高峰,分别在培养的第8、7、12天和12天出现298.83、343.14、271.22、251.49U/L漆酶第一个产酶高峰,在培养的第12、13、19和19天产生257.69、298.78、213.81、216.93U/L漆酶的第二个产酶高峰。碳氮营养对产酶的影响显示:两菌株只要初始碳源浓度相同(限碳或富碳),各自产酶动力学趋势基本一致;相反,即使初始氮源浓度相同但其产酶动力学趋势却不同,说明碳源对黄孢原毛平革菌产漆酶的影响比氮源更为重要。【结论】野生型黄孢原毛平革菌产漆酶受碳或氮饥饿调控,碳、氮各自独立发挥作用且在不同的营养条件下由不同营养素所调控,如在限碳条件下产漆酶主要由葡萄糖饥饿启动,而在富碳条件下则由氨氮饥饿所激发,以碳或氮菌体负荷表示是否达到启动酶合成的调控阀值比单纯碳或氮浓度更为合理。突变菌株漆酶合成的启动不受碳、氮营养所阻遏,可能涉及一个全局调控的改变,解除了漆酶合成的营养阻碍。     

Switching from blue to yellow: altering the spectral properties of a high redox potential laccase by directed evolution

Abstract

During directed evolution to functionally express the high redox potential laccase from the PM1 basidiomycete in Saccharomyces cerevisiae, the characteristic maximum absorption at the T1 copper site (Abs₆₁₀T1Cu) was quenched, switching the typical blue colour of the enzyme to yellow. To determine the molecular basis of this colour change, we characterized the original wild-type laccase and its evolved mutant. Peptide printing and MALDI-TOF analysis confirmed the absence of contaminating protein traces that could mask the Abs₆₁₀T1Cu, while conservation of the redox potential at the T1 site was demonstrated by spectroelectrochemical redox titrations. Both wild-type and evolved laccases were capable of oxidizing a broad range of substrates (ABTS, guaiacol, DMP, synapic acid) and they displayed similar catalytic efficiencies. The laccase mutant could only oxidize high redox potential dyes (Poly R-478, Reactive Black 5, Azure B) in the presence of exogenous mediators, indicating that the yellow enzyme behaves like a blue laccase. The main consequence of over-expressing the mutant laccase was the generation of a six-residue N-terminal acidic extension, which was associated with the failure of the STE13 protease in the Golgi compartment giving rise to alternative processing. Removal of the N-terminal tail had a negative effect on laccase stability, secretion and its kinetics, although the truncated mutant remained yellow. The results of CD spectra analysis suggested that polyproline helixes were formed during the directed evolution altering spectral properties. Moreover, introducing the A461T and S426N mutations in the T1 environment during the first cycles of laboratory evolution appeared to mediate the alterations to Abs₆₁₀T1Cu by affecting its coordinating sphere. This laccase mutant is a valuable departure point for further protein engineering towards different fates.     

Involvement of AtLAC15 in lignin synthesis in seeds and in root elongation of Arabidopsis

Laccase, EC 1.10.3.2 or p-diphenol:dioxygen oxidoreductase, has been proposed to be involved in lignin synthesis in plants based on its in vitro enzymatic activity and a close correlation with the lignification process in plants. Despite many years of research, genetic evidence for the role of laccase in lignin synthesis is still missing. By screening mutants available for the annotated laccase gene family in Arabidopsis, we identified two mutants for a single laccase gene, AtLAC15 (At5g48100) with a pale brown or yellow seed coat which resembled the transparent testa (tt) mutant phenotype. A chemical component analysis revealed that the mutant seeds had nearly a 30% decrease in extractable lignin content and a 59% increase in soluble proanthocyanidin or condensed tannin compared with wild-type seeds. In an in vitro enzyme assay, the developing mutant seeds showed a significant reduction in polymerization activity of coniferyl alcohol in the absence of H₂O₂. Among the dimers formed in the in vitro assay using developing wild-type seeds, 23% of the linkages were β-O-4 which resembles the major linkages formed in native lignin. The evidence strongly supports that AtLAC15 is involved in lignin synthesis in plants. To our knowledge, this is the first genetic evidence for the role of laccase in lignin synthesis. Changes in seed coat permeability, seed germination and root elongation were also observed in the mutant.Electronic Supplementary Material Supplementary material is available to authorised users in the online version of this article at .     

A thioredoxin of Sinorhizobium meliloti CE52G is required for melanin production and symbiotic nitrogen fixation

A miniTn5-induced mutant of a melanin-producing strain of Sinorhizobium meliloti (CE52G) that does not produce melanin was mapped to a gene identified as a probable thioredoxin gene. It was proved that the thiol-reducing activity of the mutant was affected. Addition to the growth medium of substrates that induce the production of melanin (L-tyrosine, guaiacol, orcinol) increased the thioredoxin-like (trxL) mRNA level in the wild-type strain. The mutant strain was affected in the response to paraquat-induced oxidative stress, symbiotic nitrogen fixation, and both laccase and tyrosinase activities. The importance of thioredoxin in melanin production in bacteria, through the regulation of laccase or tyrosinase activities, or both, by the redox state of structural or catalytic SH groups, is discussed.     

Perturbations of the T1 copper site in the CotA laccase from Bacillus subtilis: structural, biochemical, enzymatic and stability studies

Site-directed mutagenesis has been used to replace Met502 in CotA laccase by the residues leucine and phenylalanine. X-ray structural comparison of M502L and M502F mutants with the wild-type CotA shows that the geometry of the T1 copper site is maintained as well as the overall fold of the proteins. The replacement of the weak so-called axial ligand of the T1 site leads to an increase in the redox potential by approximately 100 mV relative to that of the wild-type enzyme (E ⁰=455 mV). However the M502L mutant exhibits a twofold to fourfold decrease in the k _cat values for the all substrates tested and the catalytic activity in M502F is even more severely compromised; 10% activity and 0.15–0.05% for the non-phenolic substrates and for the phenolic substrates tested when compared with the wild-type enzyme. T1 copper depletion is a key event in the inactivation and thus it is a determinant of the thermodynamic stability of wild-type and mutant proteins. Whilst the unfolding of the tertiary structure in the wild-type enzyme is a two-state process displaying a midpoint at a guanidinium hydrochloride concentration of 4.6 M and a free-energy exchange in water of 10 kcal/mol, the unfolding for both mutant enzymes is clearly not a two-state process. At 1.9 M guanidinium hydrochloride, half of the molecules are in an intermediate conformation, only slightly less stable than the native state (approximately 1.4 kcal/mol). The T1 copper centre clearly plays a key role, from the structural, catalytic and stability viewpoints, in the regulation of CotA laccase activity.     

How is the reactivity of laccase affected by single-point mutations? Engineering laccase for improved activity towards sterically demanding substrates

In spite of its broad specificity among phenols, Trametes versicolor laccase hardly succeeds in oxidizing hindered substrates. To improve the oxidation ability of this laccase towards bulky phenolic substrates, we designed a series of single-point mutants on the basis of the amino-acid layout inside the reducing substrate active site known from the crystal structure of the enzyme. Site-directed mutagenesis has addressed four phenylalanine residues in key positions 162, 265, 332, and 337 at the entrance of the binding pocket, as these residues appeared instrumental for docking of the substrate. These phenylalanines were replaced by smaller-sized but still apolar alanines. A double mutant F162A/F332A was also designed. Measurement of the oxidation efficiency towards encumbered phenols has shown that mutant F162A was more efficient than the wild-type laccase. The double mutant F162A/F332A led to 98% consumption of bisphenol A in only 5 h and was more efficient than the single mutants in the aerobic oxidation of this bulky substrate. In contrast, lack of appropriate hydrophobic interactions with the substrate possibly depresses the oxidation outcome with mutants F265A and F332A. One explanation for the lack of reactivity of mutant F337A, supported by literature reports, is that this residue is part of the second coordination shell of T1 Cu. A mutation at this position thus leads to a drastic coordination shell destabilization. Thermal stability of the mutants and their resistance in a mixed water–dioxane solvent have also been investigated.     

Production and Characterization of Trametes versicolor Mutants Unable To Bleach Hardwood Kraft Pulp

Protoplasts of the monokaryotic strain 52J of Trametes versicolor were treated with UV light and screened for the inability to produce a colored precipitate on guaiacol-containing agar plates. Mutants unable to oxidize guaiacol had absent or very low secretion of laccase and manganese peroxidase (MnP) proteins. All isolates unable to secrete MnP were also unable to bleach or delignify kraft pulp. One mutant strain, M49, which grew normally but did not oxidize guaiacol, was tested further with a number of other substrates whose degradation has been associated with delignification by white rot fungi. Compared with the parent, 52J, mutant M49, secreting no MnP and low laccase, could not brighten or delignify kraft pulp, produced less ethylene from 2-keto methiolbutyric acid, released much less (sup14)CO(inf2) from [(sup14)C]DHP (a synthetic lignin-like polymerizate), and produced much less methanol from pulp. This mutant also displayed decreased abilities to oxidize the dyes poly B-411, poly R-478, and phenol red compared with the wild-type strain and was also unable to decolorize kraft bleachery effluent or mineralize its organochlorine. Addition of purified MnP in conjunction with H(inf2)O(inf2), MnSO(inf4), and an Mn(III) chelator to M49 cultures partially restored methanol production, pulp delignification, and biobleaching in some cases.     

Dominant spore color mutants of Aspergillus nidulans defective in germination and sexual development.

The ascomycete Aspergillus nidulans produces green conidia (asexual spores). Recessive mutants which produce yellow conidia have been previously isolated from haploid strains and have been shown to be deficient in laccase (diphenol oxidase), an enzyme that requires copper for activity. Using a diploid parent strain, we isolated dominant yellow conidial mutants which, in the haploid state, produced even less laccase activity than a recessive mutant. Three isolates of such mutants behaved similarly and define a single complementation group (yB) on chromosome VIII distinct from the yA locus on chromosome I defined by recessive mutants. Unlike yA mutants, whose only discernable phenotype is their conidial color, yB mutants are pleiotropic: conidial germination was delayed relative to the wild type, and sexual development was blocked at an early stage. The three phenotypes of yB mutants were expressed on yeast extract-glucose medium containing 1.6 microM of added copper. When copper was added to above 5 microM, all three phenotypes were remediated, and near wild-type levels of laccase were produced. We conclude that yB mutants have a reduced availability of copper. The dominance of yB mutants could result, for example, from an alteration in transport or storage of copper. Using an immunological assay, we detected no laccase antigenic cross-reacting material in yB mutants grown on medium of low copper content. We conclude that either the synthesis or the stability of laccase is copper dependent.     

Role of a VPS41 homologue in starvation response, intracellular survival and virulence of Cryptococcus neoformans

Previous studies have demonstrated an important role for the vacuole in the virulence of the fungus Cryptococcus and studies in yeast have implicated the vacuolar protein Vps41 in copper loading of proteins such as iron transporters. However, our studies found that a cryptococcal vps41Delta strain displayed wild-type growth on media containing iron and copper chelators and normal activity of the copper-containing virulence factor laccase as well as almost normal growth at 37 degrees C and wild-type production of the virulence factor capsule. Despite these attributes, the vps41Delta mutant strain showed a dramatic attenuation of virulence in mice and co-incubation of mutant cells with the macrophage cell line, J774.16, resulted in a dramatic loss in viability of the vps41Delta mutant strain at 10 h compared with wild-type and complemented strains. Closer examination revealed that the vps41Delta mutant displayed a dramatic loss in viability after nutrient starvation which was traced to a failure to undergo G2 arrest, but there was no defect in the formation of autophagic or proteolytic vesicles. Our results indicate that VPS41 plays a key role in regulating starvation response in this pathogenic organism and that defects in cell cycle arrest are associated with attenuated pathogenic fitness in mammalian hosts.     

Investigation of the role of 3-hydroxyanthranilic acid in the degradation of lignin by white-rot fungus Pycnoporus cinnabarinus

An aminophenol, 3-hydroxyanthranilic acid (3-HAA), has been proposed to play important roles in lignin degradation. Production of 3-HAA in Pycnoporus cinnabarinus was completely inhibited by a combination of tryptophan and S-(2-aminophenyl)-L-cysteine S,S-dioxide (APCD) while the fungus grew well and produced high amounts of laccase. The biosynthesis of 3-HAA is mainly through the metabolism of tryptophan in the kynurenine pathway. A minor pathway for 3-HAA synthesis is through the hydroxylation of anthranilic acid during the biosynthesis of tryptophan in the shikimic acid pathway. Through UV irradiation of wild-type P. cinnabarinus (WT-Pc) spores, a 3-HAA-less mutant was produced. Both WT-Pc, under the inhibitory culture condition, and the 3-HAA-less mutant were found to degrade lignin in unbleached kraft pulp as efficiently as the WT-Pc, which unambiguously demonstrated that 3-HAA does not play an important role in the fungal degradation of lignin.     

Improvement of laccase production and its properties by low-energy ion implantation

Low-energy ion implantation was employed to breed laccase producing strain Paecilomyces sp. WSH-L07 and a mutant S152 that exhibited an activity of more than three times over the wild strain was obtained. The optimum substrate of both the wild and mutant laccases was 2,2′-azino-bis(3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulfonate), and followed by guaiacol with optimal pH at 3.4 and 5.0, respectively, while the mutant laccase exhibited a broader active pH range. The mutant laccase had a higher optimal catalytic temperature (60–65 °C) than the wild one (55 °C), and the wild laccase deactivated rapidly when temperature increased above 55 °C. Furthermore, the mutant laccase was more stable under neutral and alkaline conditions. A thermostability experiment revealed that the mutant laccase was superior to the wild laccase. Both laccases were stable in the presence of metal ions, mildly inhibited by SDS (0.5 mM), EDTA (1 mM) and 1,4-dithiothreitol (0.5 mM), and almost completely inhibited by 0.1 mM NaN₃.     

新型隐球酵母氯离子通道在阳离子内稳态中的趋异作用

新型隐球酵母Cryptococcus neoformans有两个变种（varieties）,即grubii和neoformans。目前研究最多的两个菌株H99（血清型A）和JEC21（血清型D）分别代表这两个变种,两者的毒性差别显著,为研究新型隐球酵母菌株间毒性的进化提供了良好模型。我们通过比较JEC21的clc1-突变体Tx1与早先鉴定的H99 clc1-菌株Mlac3发现,JEC21 CLC1同样决定铜离子的吸收。Tx1中丧失的漆酶活力可以通过外源Cu2+的加入得以恢复,而漆酶基因LAC1的转录与野生     

Characterisation of the laccase-encoding gene abr2 of the dihydroxynaphthalene-like melanin gene cluster of Aspergillus fumigatus

Aspergillus fumigatus is an important pathogen of the immunocompromised host. Previously, it was shown that the polyketide synthase encoded by the pksP (alb1) gene represents a virulence determinant. pksP is part of a gene cluster involved in dihydroxynaphthalene (DHN)-like melanin biosynthesis. Because a putative laccase-encoding gene (abr2) is also part of the cluster and a laccase was found to represent a virulence factor in Cryptococcus neoformans, here, the Abr2 laccase was characterised. Deletion of the abr2 gene changed the gray-green conidial pigment to a brown color and the ornamentation of conidia was reduced compared with wild-type conidia. In contrast to the white pksP mutant, the susceptibility of the Δabr2 mutant against reactive oxygen species (ROS) was not increased, suggesting that the intermediate of DHN-like melanin produced up to the step catalysed by Abr2 already possesses ROS scavenging activity. In an intranasal mouse infection model, the Δabr2 mutant strain showed no reduction in virulence compared with the wild type. In the Δabr2 mutant, overall laccase activity was reduced only during sporulation, but not during vegetative growth. An abr2p-lacZ gene fusion was expressed during sporulation, but not during vegetative growth confirming the pattern of laccase activity due to Abr2.     

Marinomonas mediterranea MMB-1 transposon mutagenesis: isolation of a multipotent polyphenol oxidase mutant

Marinomonas mediterranea is a melanogenic marine bacterium expressing a multifunctional polyphenol oxidase (PPO) able to oxidize substrates characteristic for laccases and tyrosinases, as well as produce a classical tyrosinase. A new and quick method has been developed for screening laccase activity in culture plates to detect mutants differentially affected in this PPO activity. Transposon mutagenesis has been applied for the first time to M. mediterranea by using different minitransposons loaded in R6K-based suicide delivery vectors mobilizable by conjugation. Higher frequencies of insertions were obtained by using mini-Tn10 derivatives encoding kanamycin or gentamycin resistance. After applying this protocol, a multifunctional PPO-negative mutant was obtained. By using the antibiotic resistance cassette as a marker, flanking regions were cloned. Then the wild-type gene was amplified by PCR and was cloned and sequenced. This is the first report on cloning and sequencing of a gene encoding a prokaryotic enzyme with laccase activity. The deduced amino acid sequence shows the characteristic copper-binding sites of other blue copper proteins, including fungal laccases. In addition, it shows some extra copper-binding sites that might be related to its multipotent enzymatic capability.     

Multiple virulence factors of Cryptococcus neoformans are dependent on VPH1

Acidification of vesicular compartments plays an important role in a number of cellular transport processes, including protein secretion, metal cofactor insertion, glycosylation and pH stability. In the present study, we identify and characterize a component of the vesicular proton pump, Vph1p, to determine its role in the virulence of the AIDS-related fungal pathogen Cryptococcus neoformans. Insertional mutagenesis and plasmid rescue were used to identify the VPH1 gene by screening for mutants defective in laccase activity. Disruption of VPH1 resulted in defects in three virulence factors (capsule production, laccase and urease expression), as well as a growth defect at 37 degrees C, but only a small growth reduction at 30 degrees C. These effects were duplicated by the vacuolar (H+)-ATPase inhibitor bafilomycin A1. Furthermore, the vph1 insertional mutant was also avirulent in a mouse meningo-encephalitis model. Complementation of the insertional mutant with wild-type VPH1 resulted in a recovery of virulence factor expression, normal growth at 37 degrees C and restoration of full virulence. These studies establish the importance of the VPH1 gene and vesicular acidification in the virulence of C. neoformans.     

Sec6-dependent sorting of fungal extracellular exosomes and laccase of Cryptococcus neoformans

The cell wall of pathogenic fungi such as Cryptococcus neoformans , provides a formidable barrier to secrete virulence factors that produce host cell damage. To study secretion of virulence factors to the cell periphery, sec6 RNAi mutant strains of C. neoformans were tested for virulence factor expression. The studies reported here show that SEC6 RNAi mutant strains were defective in a number of virulence factors including laccase, urease as well as soluble polysaccharide and demonstrated attenuated virulence in mice. Further analysis by transmission electron microscopy detected the production of abundant extracellular exosomes in wild-type strains containing empty plasmid, but a complete absence in the i SEC6 strain. In addition, a green fluorescent protein–laccase fusion protein demonstrated aberrant localization within cytoplasmic vesicles in i SEC6 strains. In contrast, i SEC6 strains retained normal growth at 37°C, as well as substantially normal capsule formation, phospholipase activity and total secreted protein. These results provide the first molecular evidence for the existence of fungal exosomes and associate these vesicles with the virulence of C. neoformans .     

漆酶高产菌株的诱变选育及其产酶条件

以粗毛栓菌Trametesgallica为出发菌,通过紫外诱变处理其担孢子、PDA-RBBR平板变色法初筛、ABTS法测定培养液漆酶酶活力复筛,获得1株漆酶高产诱变菌株SAH-12。用高氮低碳无机盐培养液(LM3)培养时,其峰值酶活力比出发菌株高出4倍,达到5002.6U/L,且产酶稳定。对SAH-12液体培养产酶条件的研究表明:以纤维二糖和蔗糖为碳源明显优于麦麸、淀粉和葡萄糖,其最高酶活分别达18526U/L和13436U/L;有机氮源较无机氮源更有利于SAH-12漆酶的分泌,以蛋白胨、大豆粕和胰化蛋白胨为氮源时其峰值酶活分别达到20544U/L、19671U/L和16180U/L;适宜初始培养pH为4.0;ABTS、单宁酸、没食子酸对产酶均有明显的诱导作用,其中ABTS和单宁酸的诱导效果相对更好,愈创木酚和吐温80对产酶有一定的抑制作用。