The distribution of benthic marine algae in relation to the temperature regulation of their life histories

Mainly on the basis of the distribution patterns of 42 species of the recently revised genus Cladopkora (Chlorophyceae) in the north Atlantic Ocean, it appeared possible to distinguish 10 phytogeographic distribution groups of wide applicability. Experimentally determined critical temperatures limiting essential events in the life histories of 17 benthic algal species were used to infer possible phytogeographic boundaries; these appeared to fit closely the phytogeographic boundaries derived from field-distribution data. For a temperate species, at least six different boundaries can be postulated and should be checked in the northern hemisphere: (1) the ‘northern lethal boundary’ (corresponding to the lowest winter temperature which a species can survive); (2) the ‘northern growth boundary’ (corresponding to the lowest summer temperature which, over a period of several months, permits sufficient growth); (3) the ‘northern reproductive boundary’ (corresponding to the lowest summer temperature permitting reproduction over a period of several months); (4–6) the corresponding southern boundaries. Photoperiodic responses may influence the temperature responses. Many phytogeographic boundaries appear to be of a composite nature. For instance, the southern boundary of Laminaria digitata follows the European 10°C February isotherm (which corresponds to the highest winter temperature permitting fertility in the female gametophyte, i.e. to the ‘southern reproductive boundary’), and the American 19°C summer isotherm (corresponding to the ‘southern lethal boundary’). Thus, experimental evidence supports the validity of eight of the following 10 distribution groups (for distribution groups 2 and 6, such evidence could not be found): (1) the amphiatlantic tropical-to-warm temperate group, with a north-eastern extension (examples: Gracilaria foliifera and Centroceras clavulalum); (2) the amphiatlantic tropical-to-warm temperate group, with a north-western extension (example: Hypnea musciformis); (3) the amphiatlantic tropical-to-temperate group (example: Sphacelaria rigidula =furcigera); (4) the amphiatlantic temperate group: the Cladophora rupestris type (examples: Callithamnion hookeri, Dumontia contorta; Laminaria saccharina is transitional to type 10, I., digitata to types 5 and 10); (5) the amphiatlantic temperate group: the Cl. albida type (examples: Scytosiphon lomentaria, Petalonia fascia); (6) the tropical western Atlantic group; (7) the north-east American tropical-to-temperate group (example: Gracilaria tikvahiae); (8) the north-east American temperate group and the corresponding Japanese temperate group (examples: Campylaephora hypneoides and Sargassum muticum); (9) the warm-temperate Mediterranean-Atlantic group, and the corresponding warm-temperate Californian group (examples: Saccorhiza polyschides, Laminaria hyperborea, I., ockroleuca, Macrocystis pyrifera, Hedophyllum sessile); (10) the Arctic group (examples: Saccorhiza dermatodea and Sphacelaria arctica). Distribution groups 6, 9 and 10 have comparatively narrow temperature ranges with a span of 18 22°C between their lethal boundaries and of 5 12°C between their reproductive or growth boundaries. These narrow temperature ranges limit the species in these groups to the tropics; the temperate coasts on the eastern sides of the north Pacific and north Atlantic Oceans and in the southern hemisphere; and to the Arctic, respectively. The narrow temperature ranges of group 9 make the species in this group unfit for life on the western temperate coasts of the north Pacific and north Atlantic Oceans, where algae must cope with annual temperature fluctuations of more than 20°C. Conversely, algae in group 8 (containing the numerous Japanese endemic species) are characterized by wide temperature spans (e.g. 29°C between ‘lethal boundaries’, 12–19°C between ‘growth and/or reproductive boundaries’) and must be potentially capable of occupying wide latitudinal belts on temperate coasts along the east sides of the north Pacific and north Atlantic Oceans. Algae ‘escaped’ from Japan, such as Sargassum muticum, conform to this picture. Apparently Japanese algae do not have the capacity for long distance dispersal. The corresponding east American coasts (30–45 N) harbour very few endemic species, probably as a result of the adverse nature of these sediment coasts for benthic macroalgae and their functioning as a barrier to latitudinal displacements of the flora during glaciations. The remaining distribution groups (1,2,3,4,5,7) are characterized by wide temperature spans and wide distributions, often in both the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans and in both hemispheres. Six temperate species (in distribution groups 4, 5 and 9) with an amphiaequatorial distribution have similar winter-temperature maxima permitting reproduction and corresponding with winter isotherms of 15–17°C; their upper lethal temperatures are more dissimilar and correspond with summer isotherms of 20–30°C. Their amphiaequatorial distribution can be explained by assuming glacial temperature drops along east Pacific and east Atlantic equatorial coasts in narrow belts of intensified upwelling during the presumably intensified glacial circulation of the ocean gyres.     

TEMPERATURE REQUIREMENTS FOR GROWTH AND SURVIVAL OF ANTARCTIC RHODOPHYTA1

The temperature requirement for growth and the upper survival temperatures (USTs) of 15 Antarctic red algal species collected on King George Island (South Shetland Islands) and Signy Island (South Orkney Islands) were determined. Two groups with different temperature requirements were identified. 1) A “eurythermal” group includes Rhodymenia subantarctica, Phyllophora ahnfeltioides, Gymnogongrus antarcticus, and Rhodochorton purpureum, growing between 0° and 10°C with optimum values at (0°) 5°(l0°)C. The USTs of these species and of Porphyra endiviifolium, Delesseria lancifolia, and Bangia atropurpurea were between 22° and 16°C. These species survived temperatures in a similar range as most endemic Arctic or Arctic/cold-temperate species but exhibited a lower temperature demand for growth, suggesting an earlier contact with low temperatures than Arctic species. 2) A stenothermal group includes Pantoneura plocamioides, Myriogramme mangini, Ballia callitricha, Phyllophora antarctica, Gigartina skottsbergii, Georgiella confluens, and Plocamium cartilagineum growing at 0° or ≤5°C with optimum values at 0° or 5°C. The USTs of these species and of Phycodrys austrogeorgica were between 14° and 7°C. The species of this group must have had an even earlier contact with the Antarctic cold-water environment than species of the “eurythermal” group. Gigartina skottsbergii, Georgiella confluens, Plocamium cartilagineum, and Pantoneura plocamioides were probably exposed longer to low temperatures than the other species of this group or Antarctic green and brown algae because they show the lowest temperature requirements so far determined in seaweeds. The results are discussed in the context of present local temperature regimes at the localities where the isolates were collected. Moreover, an attempt was made to explain the geographic distribution of individual species by the temperature requirements determined in this study. Only a few of the distribution limits are determined by temperature growth and/or survival characteristics. In many species (Rhodymenia subantarctica, Ballia callitricha, Gigartina skottsbergii, Bangia atropurpurea, Rhodochorton purpureum, and Plocamium cartilagineum), the development of temperature ecotypes is evident.     

Brown Adipose Tissue,Whole‐Body Energy Expenditure,and Thermogenesis in Healthy Adult Men

Brown adipose tissue (BAT) can be identified by ¹⁸F‐fluorodeoxyglucose (FDG)‐positron emission tomography (PET) in adult humans. Thirteen healthy male volunteers aged 20–28 years underwent FDG‐PET after 2‐h cold exposure at 19 °C with light‐clothing and intermittently putting their legs on an ice block. When exposed to cold, 6 out of the 13 subjects showed marked FDG uptake into adipose tissue of the supraclavicular and paraspinal regions (BAT‐positive group), whereas the remaining seven showed no detectable uptake (BAT‐negative group). The BMI and body fat content were similar in the two groups. Under warm conditions at 27 °C, the energy expenditure of the BAT‐positive group estimated by indirect calorimetry was 1,446 ± 97 kcal/day, being comparable with that of the BAT‐negative group (1,434 ± 246 kcal/day). After cold exposure, the energy expenditure increased markedly by 410 ± 293 (P < 0.05) and slightly by 42 ± 114 kcal/day (P = 0.37) in the BAT‐positive and ‐negative groups, respectively. A positive correlation (P < 0.05) was found between the cold‐induced rise in energy expenditure and the BAT activity quantified from FDG uptake. After cold exposure, the skin temperature in the supraclavicular region close to BAT deposits dropped by 0.14 °C in the BAT‐positive group, whereas it dropped more markedly (P < 0.01) by 0.60 °C in the BAT‐negative group. The skin temperature drop in other regions apart from BAT deposits was similar in the two groups. These results suggest that BAT is involved in cold‐induced increases in whole‐body energy expenditure, and, thereby, the control of body temperature and adiposity in adult humans.     

A mathematical model describing the combined effect of exposure time and temperature of hot-water treatments on survival of gladiolus cormels

Gladiolus cormels of five cultivars were given hot-water treatments at 50.0°C, 52.5°C, 55.0°C or 57.5°C for different exposure times. Survival of cormels was determined. A mathematical model to describe the combined effect of exposure time and temperature on cormel death is presented. Consequences of these relationships for the practical application of hot-water treatments to control cormel-borne Fusarium oxysporum f.sp. gladioli are discussed.     

Effects of brief exposures to low temperature on the development, longevity and fecundity of the grain aphid Sitobion auenae (Hemiptera: Aphididae)

First instar nymphs and adults of the grain aphid Sirobion auenae that had been reared at 10°C and 20°C over a number of generations, were cooled to -5°C and -10°C for 1 h and 6 h and returned to 20°C to assess the effects of brief exposures to low temperatures (cold-pulses) on their survival. rate of development, longevity and fecundity. A strong acclimation response was observed in first instar nymphs, with significantly less mortality in groups reared to 10°C compared to 20°C. Mean development time from first instar to adult was not significantly affected by low temperature exposure at the first nymphal stage. Longevity in all groups cooled as first instars was reduced by the sub-zero cold-pulses, and was also dependent on temperature and exposure time. Acclimated aphids survived longer than non-acclimated individuals. Reproductive rate, in terms of the number of nymphs born per aphid per day, was unaffected by cold stress applied at the first instar stage. Total fecundity was however reduced, being a function of the number and longevity of the survivors. Adult aphids were less cold hardy than nymphs; mortality was higher at -10°C than -5°C increasing with duration of exposure from 1 h to 6 h. Mean fecundity was reduced significantly in aphids cooled at the adult stage, the number of aphids born per day decreasing as the exposure period of the cold-pulse increased, suggesting that low temperature had affected embryogenesis. All the nymphs born to adults surviving exposure to -5°C for 6 h died within 48 h of birth, indicating that low temperature has a pre-natal effect on mortality.     

Water stress preconditioning and cotton root pressure-flux relationships

Summary A model was developed to describe interactive effects of exposure time and treatment on thermostability of excisedIllicium parviflorum Michx. root cell membranes using electrolyte leakage (L_c) procedures. Roots were moved from 25°C to treatment temperatures between 35°C and 60°C for 30 to 300 min. A sigmoidal response described L_c increases with increasing temperature at selected time exposures and the lethal exposure time decreased exponentially as temperature increased. The lethal temperature (52.0±1.1°C) for a 15 min exposure using this technique was comparable to the critical temperature (52.2±1.2°C) when roots were exposed to gradually increasing temperatures (4°C per h). Total protein content of roots began to decrease as temperatures increased from 35 to 40°C and the temperature corresponding to 50% reduction in total proteins was 49.1±2.2°C.     

A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF TEMPERATURE RESPONSES OF CARIBBEAN SEAWEEDS FROM DIFFERENT BIOGEOGRAPHIC GROUPS1

Temperature tolerances were determined for Caribbean isolates (total 31) of seaureds belonging to three distributional groups: 1) species confined to the tropical western Atlantic (Botryocladia spinulifera, Chamaedoris peniculum, Cladophoropsis sundanensis, Dictyopteris justii, Dictyurus occidentalis, Haloplegma duperreyi, and Heterosiphonia gibbesii); 2) amphi-Atlantic species with a (sub)tropical distribution that have their northern boundary in the eastern Atlantic at the tropical Cape Verde Islands (Bryothamnion triquetrum and Ceramium nitens) or the subtropical Canary Islands (Ceratodictyon intricatum, Coelothrix irregularis, Dictyopteris delicatula, Ernodesmis verticillata, and Lophocladia trichoclados; and 3) species with an am-phi-Atlantic tropical to warm-temperate distribution also occurring in the Mediterranean (Cladophoropsis membranacea, Digenea simplex, Microdictyon boergesenii, and Wurdemannia miniata). For some isolates, growth response curves and temperature requirements for reproduction were also determined. Growth occurred in the range (18)20–30° C with optimum growth rates at 25°–30°C, irrespective of distribution group. Reproduction generally occurred at (20)25°–30° C although there were some exceptions. Species were extremely stenothermal, with those restricted to the western Atlantic surviving a total range of only 10/13° C (between 18/20° and 30/33° C). Tolerance to high temperatures was correlated with vertical position in the iniertidal/subtidal zone rather than biogeography grouping. Species restricted to the subtidal were the least tolerant, with permanent survival at 30° C but not at 33°C. Tolerance to low temperatures was not different in subtidal and intertidal species but was significantly better in am phi-Atlantic than in western Atlantic species. In the former group, damage occurred at 15°–18° C but in the latter group at 18°-20° C. We propose that these differences in low-temperature tolerances in Caribbean populations of species from different distribution groups reflect adaptations to glacial cold-stress in the tropical eastern Atlantic and subsequent trans-Atlantic dispersal.     

Supercooling ability and cold hardiness of the pollen beetle Meligethes aeneus

Supercooling point (SCP) and cold‐hardiness of the pollen beetle Meligethes aeneus (Fabricius) (Coleoptera: Nitidulidae) were investigated. Mature eggs from the oviduct were supercooled on average to ?28.0 °C and from oilseed rape buds to ?24.4 °C; first instars were supercooled to ?21.0 °C and second instars to ?16.8 °C. Despite their high supercooling ability, none of the eggs survived 24 h exposure to ?2.5 °C. The supercooling ability of adults varied significantly among feeding and non‐feeding beetles: high SCPs prevailed during the whole warm period, being about ?12 °C; low values of SCP of ?20 °C dominated in non‐feeding beetles. In spring and autumn, beetles displayed the same acclimation efficiency: after 1 week of exposure at 2.0 °C with no access to food their SCPs were depressed equally by about 3 °C. Meligethes aeneus beetles have a different response to low temperatures depending on the season. The lowest tolerance was found in reproductively active beetles after emergence from overwintering sites; the time needed to kill 50% of individuals (Ltime₅₀) was 56.2 h at ?7 °C and the lower lethal temperature needed to kill 50% (Ltemp₅₀) after 24 h exposure was ?8.6 °C. Cold hardiness increased from midsummer to midwinter; Ltime₅₀ was 80 h in August, 182.8 h in September, and 418.1 h in January. Lethal temperature after 24 h exposure was ?9.1 °C in August and ?9.8 °C in September. In February, after diapause, the beetles started to loose their cold tolerance, and Ltemp₅₀ was slightly increased to ?9.5 °C. Hibernating beetles tolerated long exposure at ?7 °C well, but mortality was high after short exposure if the temperature dropped below ?9 °C for 24 h. Despite the season, the beetles died at temperatures well above their mean SCP; consequently, SCP is not a suitable index for cold hardiness of M. aeneus.     

Effects of heat shock,heat exposure pattern,and heat hardening on survival of the sycamore lace bug,Corythucha ciliata

The sycamore lace bug, Corythucha ciliata (Say) (Hemiptera: Tingidae), is an invasive exotic pest on Platanus trees in China. This study assessed the thermotolerance of C. ciliata in the laboratory. Detailed experiments were conducted on the effects of high temperature (35, 37, 39, 41, 43, and 45 °C), duration of exposure (0.5, 1, 2, 4, 6, and 8 h), and developmental stage (egg, nymph, and adult) on survival of the bug. Meanwhile, the effects of heat hardening on survival at lethal temperature (exposure to 33, 35, 37, 39, and 41 °C for 1 h prior to transfer to 43 °C for 2 h) were also assessed for nymphs and adults. Survival of eggs, nymphs, and adults was not affected by temperatures between 35 and 39 °C, but declined rapidly with increasing duration of exposure (from 0.5 to 8 h) at temperatures ≥41 °C. The lethal temperature that caused mortality of 50% (Ltemp₅₀) of all developmental stages decreased with increasing duration of exposure from 0.5 to 8 h. The Ltemp₅₀ for nymphs was 44.3, 42.0, and 39.0 °C after 0.5, 2, and 8 h exposure, respectively. Thermotolerance was the highest in eggs, followed by adults and then nymphs. Thermotolerance was slightly greater for adult males than for adult females. The ability of nymphs, females, and males to survive exposure to 43 °C for 2 h significantly increased by heat hardening, i.e., by exposure to a non‐lethal high temperature for 1 h; the optimal heat‐hardening temperature was 37 °C. The results indicate that survival of C. ciliata at heat‐shock temperatures depended on both the temperature and the duration of exposure, and the tolerance to heat shock was enhanced by heat hardening. The thermotolerance of C. ciliata may partially explain why C. ciliata has been rapidly spreading on Platanus trees in southern provinces of China.     

Density‐Dependent Foraging and Interference Competition by Common Gartersnakes are Temperature Dependent

The ideal free distribution (IFD) predicts that optimal foragers will select foraging patches to maximize food rewards and that groups of foragers should thus be distributed between food patches in proportion to the availability of food in those patches. Because many of the underlying mechanisms of foraging are temperature dependent in ectotherms, the distribution of ectothermic foragers between food patches may similarly depend on temperature because the difference in fitness rewards between these patches may change with temperature. We tested the hypothesis that the distribution of Common Gartersnakes (Thamnophis sirtalis) between food patches can be explained by an IFD, but that conformance to an IFD weakens as temperature departs from the optimal temperature because fitness rewards, interference competition and the number of individuals foraging are highest at the optimal temperature. First, we determined the optimal temperature for foraging. Second, we examined group foraging at three temperatures and three density treatments. Search time was optimized at 27°C, handling time at 29°C and digestion time at 32°C. Gartersnakes did not match an IFD at any temperature, but their distribution did change with temperature: snakes at 20°C and at 30°C selected both food patches equally, while snakes at 25°C selected the low food patch more at low density and the high food patch more at high density. Food consumption and competition increased with temperature, and handling time decreased with temperature. Temperature therefore had a strong impact on foraging, but did not affect the IFD. Future work should examine temperature‐dependent foraging in ectotherms that are known to match an IFD.     

Temperature requirements for the growth of young sporophytes of Undaria pinnatifida and Undaria undarioides (Laminariales, Phaeophyceae)

The relative growth rate of young sporophytes of Undaria pinnatifida (Harvey) Suringar and Undaria undarioides (Yendo) Okamura was examined in order to understand the difference in distribution of these two species around the coast of Japan. The optimal temperature for growth of both species was similar at 20°C and the upper critical temperature for growth was also similar, at 27°C for U. pinnatifida and 26°C for U. undarioides. Therefore, the optimal and upper critical temperatures for growth of the young sporophytes are not the main factors determining the distribution of each species. Next, the lower critical temperatures for growth were examined. For the young sporophytes of U. pinnatifida, the lower limit was less than 5°C while for those of U. undarioides it was 15°C. Thus, the difference in the lower critical temperature for growth between the two species was approximately 10°C. During the period of young sporophyte growth in the field, the temperature at the mouth of Ise Bay, Japan, where U. pinnatifida occurs, ranges from 12.7°C in December to 13.1°C in April, with a minimum of 7.9°C in February. Our experiments indicate that young sporophytes are able to grow throughout this period. The temperature off Hamajima, Japan, where U. undarioides occurs, ranges from 19.1°C to 14.8°C during the same time period. Again, young sporophytes are able to growth throughout this period, although minimum winter temperatures are only just high enough for growth. These natural temperature ranges during the growth season of the sporophytes agree well with the experimentally determined temperature requirements for growth of each species. Therefore, the difference between the two species in the critical temperature required for growth of the young sporophytes, especially in the low temperature range, is one of the major factors determining the distribution pattern of each species.     

Cold-stress response of engorged females of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Rhipicephalus sanguineus</Emphasis>

We investigated the effect of prolonged exposure to low temperature on engorged females of Rhipicephalus sanguineus. Five groups of two females (F1–F5) were maintained at 8 ± 2°C, 70 ± 10% RH, and 24 h scotophase, for 15, 30, 45, 60 and 75 days. One group was maintained in the incubator (26 ± 1°C, 70 ± 10% RH, and 24 h scotophase) as control. The results show that egg hatch rate, longevity and reproductive fitness of engorged females of R. sanguineus are negatively correlated with the duration of exposure to low temperature, whereas preoviposition period was positively correlated with exposure to the cold. This shows that the engorged female ticks are sensitive to prolonged exposure to low temperature, and it may explain why females of this tick species are not reproductively active during winter. Our results confirm that temperature is a major limiting factor for the establishment of stable R. sanguineus populations in cold temperate regions of Europe.     

Stressor interactions in freshwater habitats: Effects of cold water exposure and food limitation on early‐life growth and upper thermal tolerance in white sturgeon,Acipenser transmontanus

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Ecophysiological adaptations of two Mediterranean red algae in relation to distribution

Effects of irradiance and temperature on the Mediterranean red algae Eupogodon spinellus and Eupogodon planus were tested. Growth of both species was saturated at an irradiance of 10–20?μmol?m^?2?s^?1, which is in accordance with their sublittoral habitat. Eupogodon spinellus and E. planus survived permanently at temperatures between 8 and 30?°C. The temperature optimum for growth was 25?°C with suboptimal growth occurring at (10?)15 and 30?°C in both species. At their collection locality (Corsica), potential monthly growth yields would be highest in summer and in winter would be only about 20% of the maximum. Reproductive requirements could be determined only in E. planus. Gametophytes reproduced both in long and in short days but only at 20?°C. Tetrasporophytes reproduced at 15–20?°C but only in short days. Geographic distribution boundaries are not set by growth or survival limits. However, the reproductive requirements of E. planus did account for its restricted distribution in the Mediterranean and on the Canary Islands.     

Germination characteristics of some Banksia species

The germination characteristics of Banksia integrifolia L.f., B. serrata L.f. and B. aemula R.Br. were investigated. No significant response was found to light exposure, seed coat and substrate treatments. The three species showed marked and differing sensitivities to the temperature regime of germination. Germination character curves allowing the interpretation of temperature maxima, minima, the span between them, and optimal conditions for minimal incubation periods are presented. These were for B. integrifolia cool day temperatures < 21°C but in excess of 14°C coupled with night temperatures between 5°C and 21°C; for B. serrata a narrow range of temperatures between 18°C and 24°C; for B. aemula warm day temperatures 25–37°C coupled with night temperatures in the range 18–28°C. The geographical distribution of these species is related to germination requirements and some aspects of the seasonality of establishment environments are discussed.     

Effects of extended and repeated exposures to low temperature on mortality of the peach-potato aphid Myzus persicae

Abstract.

• 1 The survival of adult and first-instar Myzus persicae reared at 20°C and 10°C was investigated after brief (1 min) exposure in the absence of plant material to temperatures between −5°C and −25°C, and extended exposures on plants of 1–10 days at a constant 5°C, 3°C and −5°C and a 24 h cycling regime between 5°C (18 h) and −5°C (6 h).
• 2 Life stage, rearing temperature, period of exposure and temperature regime all had a significant effect on the ability of aphids to survive cold. The effects of life stage and rearing temperature were most noticeable following exposure to cycling temperatures and extended exposures at −5°C, and least apparent after 1 min exposures at lower sub-zero temperatures.
• 3 Mortality following exposure to temperatures cycling between −5°C and 5°C was greater than that at 3°C (the mean of the cycling temperatures) and less than at a constant −5°C, suggesting that when temperatures fluctuate by a few degrees around 0°C the minimum temperature may affect survival to a greater extent than the mean.
• 4 These results suggest that an overwintering population of acclimated M.persicae would persist without significant mortality after a period of 7–10 days with −5°C frosts each night.

     

Comparative study of temperature‐dependent life histories of three economically important Adelphocoris spp.

Subsequent to the widespread adoption of Bt transgenic cotton in China and an associated reduction in pesticide use, Adelphocoris spp. (Hemiptera: Miridae) are the key pests of this crop. Three species (Adelphocoris suturalis, Adelphocoris fasciaticollis and Adelphocoris lineolatus) are found in Chinese Bt cotton fields, each with a distinct geographic distribution and phenology. In the present study, the development and fecundity of the three species are compared in the laboratory at various temperatures in the range 10–35 °C. Although nymphal development and adult moulting occurs under all temperature regimes, egg eclosion is not observed at 10 °C. In general, egg and nymphal development periods decrease with increasing temperature up to 30 °C. The lower and upper development thresholds are, respectively, 5.6 and 40.1 °C for A. suturalis eggs; 5.0 and 38.4 °C for nymphs; 6.3 and 39.0 °C for A. fasciaticollis eggs, 3.0 and 41.9 °C for nymphs; 5.6 and 41.3 °C for A. lineolatus eggs; and 6.2 and 38.8 °C for nymphs. Thermal constants are 189.9 degree days (DD) (egg) and 308.8 DD (nymph) for A. suturalis, 188.8 DD (egg) and 366.7 DD (nymph) for A. fasciaticollis, and 231.7 DD (egg) and 291.6 DD (nymph) for A. lineolatus. Temperatures above 30 °C affect egg development of A. fasciaticollis and A. lineolatus adversely, but not that of A. suturalis. At the same time, nymphal survival of A. suturalis is reduced at 10 °C. Longevity of all species declines with increasing temperature, whereas extremes of temperature (i.e. 10 and 35 °C) interfere with oviposition. The estimated optimum range for oviposition is 23–25 °C, irrespective of species. In general, development and fecundity of the three Adelphocoris spp. is consistent with their respective distribution and seasonal dynamics. The present study provides insight into the distribution and phenology of Adelphocoris spp., and contributes to the modelling of their population dynamics.     

Prior temperature exposure affects subsequent chilling sensitivity

The chilling sensitivity of small discs or segments of tissue excised from chillingsensitive species was significantly altered by prior temperature exposure subsequent to holding the tissue at chilling temperatures as measured by a number of physiological processes sensitive to chilling. This temperature conditioning was reversible by an additional temperature exposure before chilling, and mature-green and red-ripe tomato tissue exhibit similar chilling sensitivities. Exposing pericarp discs excised from tomato fruit (Lycopersicon esculentum Mill. cv. Castelmart), a chilling-sensitive species, to temperatures from 0 to 37°C for 6 h before chilling the discs at 2.5°C for 4 days significantly altered the rate of ion leakage from the discs, but had no effect on the rate of ion leakage before chilling and only a minimal effect on discs held at a non-chilling temperature of 12°C. Exposing chillingsensitive tissue to temperatures below that required to induce heat-shock proteins but above 20°C significantly increased chilling sensitivity as compared to tissue exposed to temperatures between 10 and 20°C. Rates of ion leakage after 4 days of chilling at 2.5°C were higher from fruit and vegetative tissue of chilling-sensitive species (Cucumis sativus L. cv. Poinsett 76, and Cucurbita pepo L. cv. Young Beauty) that were previously exposed for 6 h to 32°C than from similar tissue exposed to 12°C. Exposure to 32 and 12°C had no effect on the rate of ion leakage from fruit tissue of chilling tolerant species (Malus domestica Borkh. cv. Golden Delicious, Pyrus communis L. cv. Bartlett). Ethylene and CO₂ production were higher and lycopene synthesis was lower in chilled tomato pericarp discs that were previously exposed for 6 h to 32°C than the values from tissue exposed to 12°C for 6 h before chilling. Increased chilling sensitivity induced by a 6 h exposure to 32°C could be reversed by subsequent exposure to 12°C for 6 h.     

Even a mild spell of cold weather affects feeding in migrating redheaded buntings

We investigated whether a climatic change in temperature affected daily food intake in migrating male redheaded buntings. Groups of adult male birds (n = 18) were photoinduced into migratory phenotype under increasing spring daylengths (NDL); as the birds began to exhibit night restlessness, Zugunruhe, these were allocated into groups, either with ambient (NDL, variable daily temperature: maximum – 29–44 °C and minimum – 16–33 °C; for food intake (six birds) and activity recording, six birds) until 2 weeks after they concluded migration or with constant temperature (NDT, 22 ± 1 °C; for food intake (six birds)) conditions. As day length increased March onwards, daily food intake increased (hyperphagia) in NDL and NDT groups. However, hyperphagia was slower in NDT birds as compared to NDL birds, suggesting that altered ambient temperature affects daily food intake in migrating buntings. Another group of 12 birds were held under constant daylengths (12L:12D; EDT and constant temperature 22 ± 1 °C). Although the onset of Zugunruhe was delayed under EDT, the day of onset of Zugunruhe was taken as day 0. Daily food intake and body weight before and during migration of EDT birds were compared with that of NDT and NDL groups. Daily food intake and body weight increased in all migrating birds, but hyperphagia continued post-migration in NDT birds. The study suggests that constantly suboptimal temperature despite increasing daylength, NDT, appeared to affect feeding and body weight of migratory buntings as evident from continued hyperphagia and body weight gain, even after concluding migrating activity.     

Discovery of a resting stage in the harmful,brown‐tide‐causing pelagophyte,Aureoumbra lagunensis: a mechanism potentially facilitating recurrent blooms and geographic expansion

To date, the life stages of pelagophytes have been poorly described. This study describes the ability of Aureoumbra lagunensis to enter a resting stage in response to environmental stressors including high temperature, nutrient depletion, and darkness as well as their ability to revert from resting cells back to vegetative cells after exposure to optimal light, temperature, and nutrient conditions. Resting cells became round in shape and larger in size, filled with red accumulation bodies, had smaller and fewer plastids, more vacuolar space, contained lower concentrations of chl a and RNA, displayed reduced photosynthetic efficiency, and lower respiration rates relative to vegetative cells. Analysis of vegetative and resting cells using Raman microspectrometry indicated resting cells were enriched in sterols within red accumulation bodies and were depleted in pigments relative to vegetative cells. Upon reverting to vegetative cells, cells increased their chl a content, photosynthetic efficiency, respiration rate, and growth rate and lost accumulation bodies as they became smaller. The time required for resting cells to resume vegetative growth was proportional to both the duration and temperature of dark storage, possibly due to higher metabolic demands on stored energy (sterols) reserves during longer period of storage and/or storage at higher temperature (20°C vs. 10°C). Resting cells kept in the dark at 10°C for 7 months readily reverted back to vegetative cells when transferred to optimal conditions. Thus, the ability of Aureoumbra to form a resting stage likely enables them to form annual blooms within subtropic ecosystems, resist temperature extremes, and may facilitate geographic expansion via anthropogenic transport.