Analysis of the Corynebacterium glutamicum dapA Promoter

Deletion and mutational analysis of the promoter P-dapA from Corynebacterium glutamicum was performed to identify regions and particular nucleotides important for its function. An extended -10 region and a stretch of six T's at positions -55 to -50 were found to be the most important elements in the promoter function. The results of mutational analysis of P-dapA are consistent with the conclusions of statistical computer-aided analysis of 44 C. glutamicum promoter sequences.     

Molecular Analysis of the Corynebacterium glutamicum Transketolase Gene

Transketolase is important in production of the aromatic amino acids in Corynebacterium glutamicum. The complete nucleotide sequence of the C. glutamicum transketolase gene has been identified. The DNA-derived protein sequence is highly similar to the transketolase of Mycobacterium tuberculosis, taxonomically related to C. glutamicum. The alignment of the N-terminus regions between both transketolases showed TTG to be the most probable start codon. Potential ribosomal binding and promoter regions were situated upstream from the TTG. The deduced amino acid sequence consists of 700 residues with a calculated molecular mass of 75 kDa, and contains all amino acid residues involved in cofactor and substrate binding in the well-characterized yeast transketolase sequence.     

L-精氨酸生物合成的代谢流量分析

建立并完善了谷氨酸棒杆菌GWY020及其2个逐步叠加不同遗传标记的突变株HUI821和GUI089合成L-精氨酸的中心代谢网络。分别测定了它们在特定培养时段(50 h~52 h)L-精氨酸等代谢物的胞外浓度, 由此计算这一时段这些代谢物在发酵液中积累(或消耗)的速率, 分别作出这3株菌在拟稳态下的代谢流量分布图, 进而研究育种过程中不同遗传标记的叠加对代谢网络中L-精氨酸合成流量分布的影响。结果表明遗传标记的引入使流量分配发生了重大变化, 节点处的流量分配朝着有利于L-精氨酸合成的方向改变。从代谢流量分析角度上, 证明结构类似物抗性和敏感性突变是代谢流导向和设计育种的有效手段, 代谢流量分析将成为设计育种的提供新思路。     

L-精氨酸生物合成的代谢流量分析

建立并完善了谷氨酸棒杆菌GWY020及其2个逐步叠加不同遗传标记的突变株HUI821和GUI089合成L-精氨酸的中心代谢网络.分别测定了它们在特定培养时段(50 h～52 h)L-精氨酸等代谢物的胞外浓度,由此计算这一时段这些代谢物在发酵液中积累(或消耗)的速率,分别作出这3株菌在拟稳态下的代谢流量分布图,进而研究育种过程中不同遗传标记的叠加对代谢网络中L-精氨酸合成流量分布的影响.结果表明遗传标记的引入使流量分配发生了重大变化,节点处的流量分配朝着有利于L-精氨酸合成的方向改变.从代谢流量分析角度上,证明结构类似物抗性和敏感性突变是代谢流导向和设计育种的有效手段,代谢流量分析将成为设计育种的提供新思路.     

L-缬氨酸合成的代谢流量分析

分别测定谷氨酸棒杆菌（Corynebacterium glutamicum）AS1-495及其3个逐个叠加不同遗传标记的突变株AA361、AAT231和AATV341在特定培养时段（26～28h）L缬氨酸等代谢物的胞外浓度,由此计算这一时段这些代谢物在发酵液中积累（或消耗）的速率,分别做出这4株菌在拟稳态下的代谢流量分布图,进而研究育种过程中不同遗传标记的叠加对代谢网络中L-缬氨酸合成流量分布的影响。结果表明遗传标记的引入使流量分配发生了重大变化,节点处的流量分配朝着有利于L缬氨酸合成的方向改变。6-磷酸葡萄糖节点处流入EMP途径和HMP途径的流量分配由17.0∶83.0变为24.3∶75.7;丙酮酸节点处流入L-缬氨酸合成途径和其他途径的流量分配由15.8∶842变为76.7∶23.3/L-缬氨酸合成的分支途径上的流量由最初的5.37增大为37.3,乳酸合成途径的流量从11.1最后降为1.16,L-缬氨酸产量由4g/L提高到24.5 g/L。代谢流量分布的变化趋势与L缬氨酸产量的变化趋势是互相吻合的。以2-噻唑丙氨酸抗性突变（2TAr）和L天冬氨酸氧肟酸盐超敏性突变（LAAHss）有效地进行代谢流遗传导向的事实,在代谢流量分析的层面上,证明结构类似物抗性突变和结构类似物超敏性突变是代谢流导向和设计育种的十分有效的手段,代谢流量分析会成为设计育种的校正方法。     

Protein secretion in Corynebacterium glutamicum

Corynebacterium glutamicum, a Gram-positive bacterium, has been widely used for the industrial production of amino acids, such as glutamate and lysine, for decades. Due to several characteristics – its ability to secrete properly folded and functional target proteins into culture broth, its low levels of endogenous extracellular proteins and its lack of detectable extracellular hydrolytic enzyme activity – C. glutamicum is also a very favorable host cell for the secretory production of heterologous proteins, important enzymes, and pharmaceutical proteins. The target proteins are secreted into the culture medium, which has attractive advantages over the manufacturing process for inclusion of body expression – the simplified downstream purification process. The secretory process of proteins is complicated and energy consuming. There are two major secretory pathways in C. glutamicum, the Sec pathway and the Tat pathway, both have specific signal peptides that mediate the secretion of the target proteins. In the present review, we critically discuss recent progress in the secretory production of heterologous proteins and examine in depth the mechanisms of the protein translocation process in C. glutamicum. Some successful case studies of actual applications of this secretory expression host are also evaluated. Finally, the existing issues and solutions in using C. glutamicum as a host of secretory proteins are specifically addressed.     

Ethanol catabolism in Corynebacterium glutamicum

Corynebacterium glutamicum grows on a variety of carbohydrates and organic acids as single or combined sources of carbon and energy. Here we show the ability of C. glutamicum to grow on ethanol with growth rates up to 0.24 h(-1) and biomass yields up to 0.47 g dry weight (g ethanol)(-1). Mutants of C. glutamicum deficient in phosphotransacetylase (PTA), isocitrate lyase (ICL) and malate synthase (MS) were unable to grow on ethanol, indicating that acetate activation and the glyoxylate cycle are essential for utilization of this substrate. In accordance, the expression profile of ethanol-grown C. glutamicum cells compared to that of glucose-grown cells revealed an increased expression of genes encoding acetate kinase (AK), PTA, ICL and MS. Furthermore, the specific activities of these four enzymes as well as those of alcohol dehydrogenase (ADH) and acetaldehyde dehydrogenase (ALDH) were found to be high in ethanol-grown and low in glucose-grown cells. Growth of C. glutamicum on a mixture of glucose and ethanol led to a biphasic growth behavior, which was due to the sequential utilization of glucose before ethanol. Accordingly, the specific activities of ADH, ALDH, AK, PTA, ICL and MS in cells grown in medium containing both substrates were as low as in glucose-grown cells in the first growth phase, but increased 5- to 100-fold during the second growth phase. The results indicate that ethanol catabolism in C. glutamicum is subject to carbon source-dependent regulation, i.e., to a carbon catabolite control.     

Vanillate Metabolism in Corynebacterium glutamicum

Corynebacterium glutamicum, a Gram-positive soil bacterium belonging to the mycolic acids-containing actinomycetes, is able to use the lignin degradation products ferulate, vanillate, and protocatechuate as sole carbon sources. The gene cluster responsible for vanillate catabolism was identified and characterized. The vanAB genes encoding vanillate demethylase are organized in an operon together with the vanK gene, coding for a transport system most likely responsible for protocatechuate uptake. While gene disruption mutagenesis revealed that vanillate demethylase is indispensable for ferulate and vanillate utilization, a vanK mutation does not lead to a complete growth arrest but to a decreased growth rate on protocatechuate, indicating that one or more additional protocatechuate transporter(s) are present in C. glutamicum.     

Impact of Spontaneous Prophage Induction on the Fitness of Bacterial Populations and Host-Microbe Interactions

Bacteriophages and genetic elements, such as prophage-like elements, pathogenicity islands, and phage morons, make up a considerable amount of bacterial genomes. Their transfer and subsequent activity within the host''s genetic circuitry have had a significant impact on bacterial evolution. In this review, we consider what underlying mechanisms might cause the spontaneous activity of lysogenic phages in single bacterial cells and how the spontaneous induction of prophages can lead to competitive advantages for and influence the lifestyle of bacterial populations or the virulence of pathogenic strains.     

Evolutionary engineering of Corynebacterium glutamicum

A unique feature of biotechnology is that we can harness the power of evolution to improve process performance. Rational engineering of microbial strains has led to the establishment of a variety of successful bioprocesses, but it is hampered by the overwhelming complexity of biological systems. Evolutionary engineering represents a straightforward approach for fitness‐linked phenotypes (e.g., growth or stress tolerance) and is successfully applied to select for strains with improved properties for particular industrial applications. In recent years, synthetic evolution strategies have enabled selection for increased small molecule production by linking metabolic productivity to growth as a selectable trait. This review summarizes the evolutionary engineering strategies performed with the industrial platform organism Corynebacterium glutamicum. An increasing number of recent studies highlight the potential of adaptive laboratory evolution (ALE) to improve growth or stress resistance, implement the utilization of alternative carbon sources, or improve small molecule production. Advances in next‐generation sequencing and automation technologies will foster the application of ALE strategies to streamline microbial strains for bioproduction and enhance our understanding of biological systems.     

Phosphotransferase-dependent glucose transport in Corynebacterium glutamicum

G.M. MALIN AND G.I. BOURD. 1991. The transport system for glucose and its non-metabolizable analogue methyl-α-D-glucoside (MG) has been described in Corynebacterium glutamicum. The initial product of the transport reaction was shown to be a phosphate ester of MG (MGP). Free MG appeared inside the cells as a result of MGP dephosphorylation. The bacteria transported MG with an apparent K_m of 0.08 ± 0.017 mmol/l and V_max of 21 ± 2.3 nmol/(min × mg dry wt). Toluenized cells and crude cell extracts catalysed phosphoenolpyruvate (PEP)-dependent phosphorylation of MG and glucose. Both the membrane and the cytoplasmic fractions of bacterial extracts were required for phosphotransferase reaction. Most of the spontaneous mutants resistant to 2-deoxyglucose (DG), xylitol and 5-thioglucose were defective both in transport and in PEP-dependent phosphorylation of MG. Some strains were defective only in glucose utilization and some were also unable to grow on a number of other sugars. The phosphotransferase activity in extracts from mutant cells was restored by the addition of either membrane or cytoplasmic fraction from wild type bacteria. It was concluded that Corynebacterium glutamicum accumulated glucose and MG by means of a PEP-dependent phosphotransferase system (PTS).     

Carrier-mediated acetate uptake in Corynebacterium glutamicum

Acetate is effectively taken up by whole cells of Corynebacterium glutamicum via a specific carrier with a pH optimum of 8. The K _m of acetate uptake was 50 μM and the V _max 25–35 nmol/mg dw min. The activation energy was determined to be 70 kJ/mol. Acetate uptake was competitively inhibited by propionate with a K _i of about 30 μM and blocked by addition of sulfhydryl reagents. The transport activity was clearly dependent on the membrane potential, but independent of the presence of Na⁺-ions. It is concluded that uptake of acetate proceeds by a secondary, proton coupled mechanism.     

Large-Scale Engineering of the Corynebacterium glutamicum Genome

The engineering of Corynebacterium glutamicum is important for enhanced production of biochemicals. To construct an improved C. glutamicum genome, we developed a precise genome excision method based on the Cre/loxP recombination system and successfully deleted 11 distinct genomic regions identified by comparative analysis of C. glutamicum genomes. Despite the loss of several predicted open reading frames, the mutant cells exhibited normal growth under standard laboratory conditions. With a total of 250 kb (7.5% of the genome), the 11 genomic regions were loaded with cryptic prophages, transposons, and genes of unknown function which were dispensable for cell growth, indicating recent horizontal acquisitions to the genome. This provides an interesting background for functional genomic studies and can be used in the improvement of cell traits.     

Mapping the membrane proteome of Corynebacterium glutamicum

In order to avoid the specific problems with intrinsic membrane proteins in proteome analysis, a new procedure was developed which is superior to the classical two-dimensional polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (2-D PAGE) method in terms of intrinsic membrane proteins. For analysis of the membrane proteome from Corynebacterium glutamicum, we replaced the first separation dimension, i.e., the isoelectric focusing step, by anion-exchange chromatography, followed by sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS)-PAGE in the second separation dimension. Enrichment of the membrane intrinsic subproteome was achieved by washing with 2.5 M NaBr which removed more than 35% of the membrane-associated soluble proteins. For the extraction and solubilization of membrane proteins, the detergent amidosulfobetaine 14 (ASB-14) was most efficient in a detailed screening procedure and proved also suitable for chromatography. 356 gel bands were spotted, and out of 170 different identified proteins, 50 were membrane-integral. Membrane proteins with one up to 13 transmembrane helices were found. Careful analysis revealed that this new procedure covers proteins from a wide pI range (3.7-10.6) and a wide mass range of 10-120 kDa. About 50% of the identified membrane proteins belong to various functional categories like energy metabolism, transport, signal transduction, protein translocation, and proteolysis while for the others a function is not yet known, indicating the potential of the developed method for elucidation of membrane proteomes in general.     

Functional Analysis of the Twin-Arginine Translocation Pathway in Corynebacterium glutamicum ATCC 13869

Compared to those of other gram-positive bacteria, the genetic structure of the Corynebacterium glutamicum Tat system is unique in that it contains the tatE gene in addition to tatA, tatB, and tatC. The tatE homologue has been detected only in the genomes of gram-negative enterobacteria. To assess the function of the C. glutamicum Tat pathway, we cloned the tatA, tatB, tatC, and tatE genes from C. glutamicum ATCC 13869 and constructed mutants carrying deletions of each tat gene or of both the tatA and tatE genes. Using green fluorescent protein (GFP) fused with the twin-arginine signal peptide of the Escherichia coli TorA protein, we demonstrated that the minimal functional Tat system required TatA and TatC. TatA and TatE provide overlapping function. Unlike the TatB proteins from gram-negative bacteria, C. glutamicum TatB was dispensable for Tat function, although it was required for maximal efficiency of secretion. The signal peptide sequence of the isomaltodextranase (IMD) of Arthrobacter globiformis contains a twin-arginine motif. We showed that both IMD and GFP fused with the signal peptide of IMD were secreted via the C. glutamicum Tat pathway. These observations indicate that IMD is a bona fide Tat substrate and imply great potential of the C. glutamicum Tat system for industrial production of heterologous folded proteins.     

Ultrastructure of the Corynebacterium glutamicum cell wall

The cell wall structure of the Gram-positive Corynebacterium glutamicum was evaluated by electron microscopy of thin sections after freeze-substitution and conventional fixation with glutaraldehyde. For the cell wall an overall thickness of approximately 32 nm was determined, with 8.5 nm corresponding to an outer layer, 6.5 nm to an electron translucent region (ETR) as found in mycobacteria and 17 nm to the peptidoglycan. Knob-like surface structures previously observed in freeze-fracture experiments were detected when cells were conventionally processed with a fixation using glutaraldehyde. By mild treatment with detergents approximately 20 proteins were extracted from the cell wall. From seven of these N-terminal amino acid sequences were determined.