Streptococcal cytoplasmic pH is regulated by changes in amount and activity of a proton-translocating ATPase

The Streptococcus faecalis H+-ATPase (F1 X F0 complex) level was elevated when the cytoplasmic pH was shifted below 7.5. The elevated level was attained by the increase in functional unit (F1 X F0 complex) in membranes, but not by the activation of the enzyme. Our data strongly suggested that the increase in enzyme arises from stimulation of enzyme biosynthesis. When calls growing at pH 7.6 were transferred to an acid medium with a pH below 7, the amount of H+-ATPase increased. The amount of H+-ATPase decreased to the basal level when the medium was alkalized again. Cytoplasmic pH was not controlled normally in cells where a change in the amount of H+-ATPase was inhibited. Based on these findings and previous data (Kobayashi, H. (1985) J. Biol. Chem. 260, 72-76), we propose a model for the regulatory mechanism of streptococcal cytoplasmic pH: the pH is regulated by changes in amount and activity of the H+-ATPase, which are dependent on the cytoplasmic pH.     

Computer simulation of cytoplasmic pH regulation mediated by the F-type H+-ATPase

Cytoplasmic pH regulation mediated by the H(+)-ATPase was examined with the aid of computer simulation. The data obtained with our simulation model were consistent with the experimental data and the simulation clarified the following points that may be difficult to be clarified with experimental studies. (1) The change in the enzyme amount controlled by cytoplasmic pH was essential for the pH regulation. (2) No significant change in internal pH was observed in acidic surroundings even if the proton transport activity of the H(+)-ATPase changed greater than sixfold. (3) The cytoplasmic pH homeostasis can be maintained even when the biosynthetic rate of the enzyme decreased by 50%. These results suggested that this regulatory system has an ability to maintain the pH in homeostasis even under harsh conditions that decrease cellular metabolic activities.     

pH homeostasis and bioenergetic work in alkalophiles

A Na+/H+ antiporter catalyses coupled Na+ extrusion and H+ uptake across the membranes of extremely alkalophilic bacilli. This exchange is electrogenic, with H+ translocated inward greater than Na+ extruded. It is energized by the delta chi 2 component of the delta mu H+ that is established during primary proton pumping by the alkalophile respiratory chain complexes. These complexes abound in the membranes of extreme alkalophiles. Combined activity of the respiratory chain, the antiporter, and solute transport systems that are coupled to Na+ re-entry, allow the alkalophiles to maintain a cytoplasmic pH that is several pH units more acidic than optimal external pH values for growth. There is no compelling evidence for a specific and necessary role for any ion other than sodium in pH homeostasis, and although there is very high cytoplasmic buffering capacity in the alkaline range, active mechanisms for pH homeostasis are crucial. Energization of the antiporter as well as the proton translocating F1F0-ATPase that catalyses ATP synthesis in the extreme alkalophiles must accommodate the problem of the low net delta mu H+ and the very low concentrations of protons, per se, in the external medium. This problem is by-passed by other bioenergetic work functions, such as solute uptake or motility, that utilize sodium ions for energy-coupling in the place of protons.     

A proton-translocating ATPase regulates pH of the bacterial cytoplasm

Regulatory mechanisms of cytoplasmic pH in Streptococcus faecalis with no respiratory chain were investigated. In a mutant defective in cytoplasmic alkalization conducted by a proton-translocating ATPase (H+-ATPase), the cytoplasmic pH is approximately 0.4 to 0.5 pH units lower than the medium pH, at pH 5.5 to 9.0. The cytoplasmic pH of the wild-type strain was always higher than that of the mutant at a pH below 8 and was the same as that of the mutant at an alkaline pH over 8. Thus, the cytoplasmic pH is regulated only by the cytoplasmic alkalization, and there is no regulation at alkaline pH in S. faecalis. A generation of the protonmotive force conducted by the H+-ATPase depended on the cytoplasmic pH rather than the medium pH, and the generation decreased rapidly when the cytoplasmic pH was increased over 7.7. The decrease at alkaline pH was not caused by increases in the rate of proton influx. These results suggest that cytoplasmic alkalization is diminished when alkaline pH of the cytoplasm is over 7.7, because of a low activity of proton extrusion by the H+-ATPase, and consequently, the cytoplasmic pH is regulated at about 7.7. The cytoplasmic pH was regulated at a high level in cells that had a high level of H+-ATPase. I conclude that in S. faecalis, the cytoplasmic pH is regulated by H+-ATPase.     

Modulation of reactive oxygen species production during osmotic stress in Arabidopsis thaliana cultured cells: involvement of the plasma membrane Ca2+-ATPase and H+-ATPase

In Arabidopsis thaliana cells, hypoosmotic treatment initially stimulates Ca2+ influx and inhibits its efflux and, concurrently, promotes a large H2O2 accumulation in the external medium, representative of reactive oxygen species (ROS) production. After the first 10-15 min, Ca2+ influx rate is, however, lowered, and a large rise in Ca2+ efflux, concomitant with a rapid decline in H2O2 level, takes place. The drop of the H2O2 peak, as well as the efflux of Ca2+, are prevented by treatment with submicromolar concentrations of eosin yellow (EY), selectively inhibiting the Ca2+-ATPase of the plasma membrane (PM). Comparable changes of Ca2+ fluxes are also induced by hyperosmotic treatment. However, in this case, the H2O2 level does not rise, but declines below control levels when Ca2+ efflux is activated. Also K+ and H+ net fluxes across the PM and cytoplasmic pH (pH(cyt)) are very differently influenced by the two opposite stresses: strongly decreased by hypoosmotic stress and increased under hyperosmotic treatment. The H2O2 accumulation kinetics, followed as a function of the pH(cyt) changes imposed by modulation of the PM H+-ATPase activity or weak acid treatment, show a close correlation between pH(cyt) and H2O2 formed, a larger amount being produced for changes towards acidic pH values. Overall, these results confirm a relevant role for the PM Ca2+-ATPase in switching off the signal triggering ROS production, and propose a role for the PM H+-ATPase in modulating the development of the oxidative wave through the pH(cyt) changes following the changes of its activity induced by stress conditions.     

Novel streptococcal mutants defective in the regulation of H+-ATPase biosynthesis and in F0 complex

In Streptococcus faecalis (faecium), the cytoplasmic pH is regulated by proton extrusion via a proton translocating F1F0-ATPase; the level of this enzyme increases in response to cytoplasmic acidification (Kobayashi, H., Suzuki, T., and Unemoto, T. (1986) J. Biol. Chem. 261, 627-630). We describe here two novel acid-sensitive mutants, designated AS8 and AS17, that contain ATPase activity but fail to grow on acid media. Our data suggested that in mutant AS17, acidification of the cytoplasm stimulates synthesis of the F0 sector of the ATPase but not the F1 sector. The accumulation in the plasma membrane of F0 sectors devoid of F1 results in enhanced proton permeability, and as a consequence mutant AS17 is unable to regulate the cytoplasmic pH in acid media. The genetic defect may reside in a gene that regulates expression of the F1F0-ATPase. Mutant AS8 does not generate a proton motive force. Our results suggest that the F1F0-ATPase can hydrolyze ATP but fails to translocate protons due to a defect in one of the subunits of the F0 sector.     

Amplification of the Streptococcus faecalis proton-translocating ATPase by a decrease in cytoplasmic pH

When Streptococcus faecalis was grown in the presence of protonophores , an ATPase activity of the membrane was increased at a pH below 8.0 but not at a pH above 8.0. Characteristics of this increased ATPase were identical to those of a proton-translocating ATPase (H+-ATPase) located on the membrane of normal cells. The cytoplasmic pH was regulated at 7.6 to 7.8 but was not regulated in the presence of protonophores . The increase in the H+-ATPase was observed when the cytoplasmic pH was lowered to less than 7.6 by the addition of protonophores and was not related to the dissipation of the proton motive force. Thus, we suggest that the H+-ATPase of the membrane is amplified when the cytoplasmic pH is lowered below the pH at which it is regulated under normal conditions.     

乙醇对F_1-ATP酶和H~+-ATP酶的抑制与其核苷酸结合位点状态的关系

 本文利用动力学方法研究了乙醇对F_1-ATP酶和H~(+)-ATP酶复合体的抑制与其结合核苷酸位点状态的关系,结果表明天然情况下乙醇对F_1呈现反竞争性抑制类型,对H~(+)-ATP酶呈现非竞争性抑制类型,且乙醇对F_1和H~(+)-ATP酶的抑制与核苷酸结合位点的构象密切相关。游离状态下和膜结合状态下的F_1在部分结合的核苷酸被洗脱前后动力学行为的不同,反映了二种状态下的F_1具有不同的构象,且F_0和膜脂对F_1起着一定的调控作用。     

Proton translocating ATPase in lysosomal membrane ghosts. Evidence that alkaline Mg2+-ATPase acts as a proton pump

Membrane ghosts were prepared from purified lysosomes (tritosomes) of rat liver by hypo-osmotic treatment. Mg2+-ATP-driven acidification was observed in the membrane ghosts using acridine orange as a fluorescent probe of the transmembrane pH gradient (delta pH). Its properties were the same as those of intact lysosomes reported previously (Ohkuma, S., Moriyama, Y., & Takano, T. (1982) Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S. 79, 2758-2762; Moriyama, Y., Takano, T., & Ohkuma, S. (1982) J. Biochem. 92, 1333-1336). The H+-pump was found to be electrogenic with use of bis(3-phenyl-5-oxoisoxasol-4-yl)pentamethine oxonol as a fluorescent membrane potential probe. Alkaline Mg2+-ATPase activity was also identified on the membranes. It showed a pH maximum of pH 8.0-8.5, a Km value for ATP of 0.36 mM and a Vmax of 0.41 units/mg protein at 30 degrees C. Its activity was inhibited by dicyclohexylcarbodiimide, tri-n-butyltin, azide and ADP, but not by ouabain or vanadate. It differed from mitochondrial F1F0-ATPase in sensitivities to N-ethylmaleimide, 7-chloro-4-nitrobenzo-2-oxa-1,3-diazole, quercetin, and oligomycin. Since this alkaline Mg2+-ATPase activity is very similar to the H+-pump activity in its requirement for divalent cations, substrate specificity and sensitivities to various chemicals, it may act as a proton translocase (H+-pump). Possible mechanisms of action of some chemicals, such as 4-acetamide-4'-isothiocyanatostilbene-2,2'-disulfonic acid, that inhibited the H+-pump but not the alkaline Mg2+-ATPase, are discussed.     

XRE家族转录因子XrpA调控粘质沙雷氏菌的耐酸能力

【背景】工业菌株的耐酸能力是发酵过程中的一大挑战。粘质沙雷氏菌(Serratia marcescens)作为肠杆菌科的一种细菌,可生成2,3-丁二醇、乙偶姻和灵菌红素等高附加值产品。然而目前对于粘质沙雷氏菌酸耐受能力的分子机制尚不清楚。【目的】通过对转录调控因子XrpA的挖掘以及对其功能的研究,探究粘质沙雷氏菌酸耐受能力的分子机制,为改善工业菌株耐酸能力提供新的策略。【方法】通过对粘质沙雷氏菌进行转座子插入突变,构建了一个Tn5G转座子插入突变文库,利用文库筛选了一株酸敏感型突变株,并对其进行测序鉴定;同时还对突变菌株中与耐酸相关关键基因的转录水平以及细胞膜通透性、细胞膜完整性和H+-ATPase的活性变化进行检测。【结果】发现了一个响应酸胁迫的转录调控因子BVG90₂3400,其属于XRE超级家族转录调控因子,命名为XrpA。在酸性条件下,与野生型菌株(JNB5-1)相比,xrpA被阻断后导致了粘质沙雷氏菌多种表型的变化,其中包括生物量显著下降、H+-ATPase活性降低、细胞膜的通透性以及完整性受到破坏。【结论】XrpA影响粘质沙雷氏菌耐酸能力的分子机制是通过...     

Effects of pH on the interaction of ligands with the (H+ + K+)-ATPase purified from pig gastric mucosa

The effects of K+, Na+ and ATP on the gastric (H+ + K+)-ATPase were investigated at various pH. The enzyme was phosphorylated by ATP with a pseudo-first-order rate constant of 3650 min-1 at pH 7.4. This rate constant increased to a maximal value of about 7900 min-1 when pH was decreased to 6.0. Alkalinization decreased the rate constant. At pH 8.0 it was 1290 min-1. Additions of 5 mM K+ or Na+, did not change the rate constant at acidic pH, while at neutral or alkaline pH a decrease was observed. Dephosphorylation of phosphoenzyme in lyophilized vesicles was dependent on K+, but not on Na+. Alkaline pH increased the rate of dephosphorylation. K+ stimulated the ATPase and p-nitrophenylphosphatase activities. At high concentrations K+ was inhibitory. Below pH 7.0 Na+ had little or no effect on the ATPase and p-nitrophenylphosphatase, while at alkaline pH, Na+ inhibited both activities. The effect of extravesicular pH on transport of H+ was investigated. At pH 6.5 the apparent Km for ATP was 2.7 microM and increased little when K+ was added extravesicularly. At pH 7.5, millimolar concentrations of K+ increased the apparent Km for ATP. Extravesicular K+ and Na+ inhibited the transport of H+. The inhibition was strongest at alkaline pH and only slight at neutral or acidic pH, suggesting a competition between the alkali metal ions and hydrogen ions at a common binding site on the cytoplasmic side of the membrane. Two H+-producing reactions as possible candidates as physiological regulators of (H+ + K+)-ATPase were investigated. Firstly, the hydrolysis of ATP per se, and secondly, the hydration of CO2 and the subsequent formation of H+ and HCO3-. The amount of hydrogen ions formed in the ATPase reaction was highest at alkaline pH. The H+/ATP ratio was about 1 at pH 8.0. When CO2 was added to the reaction medium there was no change in the rate of hydrogen ion transport at pH 7.0, but at pH 8.0 the rate increased 4-times upon the addition of 0.4 mM CO2. The results indicate a possible co-operation in the production of acid between the H+ + K+-ATPase and a carbonic anhydrase associated with the vesicular membrane.     

园二色性光谱研究不同醇对猪心线粒体F_1-ATP酶和H~+-ATP酶复合体构象及其与水解活力的关系

本文测定了ATP酶复合体和F_1—ATP酶(简称F_1)在低浓度甲、乙、正丙、异丙、叔丁醇中的远紫外圆二色(CD)光谱。并且比较了二者受这些醇作用时的水解活力变化。 结果表明:除10％—20％正丙醇。20％的乙醇。异丙醇和叔丁醇使F_1的CD双负峰明显变小。α螺旋量减少外其它5％—20％的各种醇均可使F_1的CD谱双负峰略微变大。α—螺旋量也相应变大。而外加5％—20％的各种醇对ATP酶复合体的CD谱影响不大。α—螺旋量也无明显变化。同时发现ATP酶复合体的水解活力不易受这些醇影响,而F_1的水解活力容易受醇类影响。显然,与游离的F_1相比,ATP酶复合体中疏水蛋白(F_0)及部分磷脂的存在,使其构象及水解功能均呈现了对醇的稳定性。水介活性与CD变化之间的关系文中作了讨论。     

Effect of NO3- transport and reduction on intracellular pH: an in vivo NMR study in maize roots

The effect of NO3- uptake on cellular pH was studied in maize roots by an in vivo 31P-NMR technique. In order to separate the effects on cytoplasmic pH due to NO3- uptake from those due to NO3- reduction, tungstate was used to inhibit nitrate reductase (NR). The results confirm that in maize roots tungstate inhibited NR activity. 15N-NMR in vivo experiments demonstrated the cessation of nitrogen flux from nitrate to organic compounds. Tungstate affected neither NO3- uptake nor the levels of the main phosphorylated compounds. Slight changes in cytoplasmic pH were observed during NO3- uptake and reduction (i.e. control). By contrast, in the presence of tungstate, a consistent decrease in cytoplasmic pH occurred. The vacuolar pH did not change in any of the conditions tested. These data show that NO3- uptake is an acidifying process and suggest a possible involvement of NO3- reduction in pH homeostasis. In the presence of NO3-, a transient depolarization of transmembrane electric potential difference (Em) was observed in all the conditions analysed. However, in tungstate-treated roots, a lesser depolarization accompanied by a greater ability to recover Em was found. This was related to a higher activity of the plasma membrane (PM) H+-ATPase. When NO3- was administered as potassium salt, its uptake increased and a greater depolarization of Em took place, whilst the changes in cytoplasmic pH were remarkably reduced, according to the central role played by K+ in the control of plasma membrane activities and cell pH homeostasis. A possible involvement of cytoplasmic pH in the control of PM H+-ATPase expression during nitrate exposure is suggested.     

Complementation of an Enterococcus hirae (Streptococcus faecalis) mutant in the alpha subunit of the H+-ATPase by cloned genes from the same and different species

We isolated an Enterococcus hirae (formerly Streptococcus faecalis) mutant, designated MS117, in which ‘G’ at position 301 of the alpha-subunit gene of the F₁F₀ type of H⁺-ATPase was deleted. MS117 had low H⁺-ATPase activity, was deficient in the regulatory system of cytoplasmic pH, and was unable to grow at pH6.0. When the alpha-subunit gene of E. hirae H⁺-ATPase was ligated with the shuttle vector pHY300PLK at the downstream region of the tet gene of the vector, it was expressed without its own promoter in MS117, and the mutation of MS117 was complemented; the mutant harbouring the plasmid had the ability to maintain a neutral cytoplasm and grew at pH6.0. We next transformed MS117 with pHY300PLK containing the alpha-subunit gene of Bacillus megaterium F₁F₀-ATPase constructed in the same way. The transformant grew at pH 6.0, and the ATP hydrolysis activity was recovered. These results suggested that an active hybrid H⁺-ATPase containing the B. megaterium alpha subunit was produced, and that the hybrid enzyme regulated the enterococcal cytoplasmic pH, although the function of the B. megaterium enzyme did not include pH regulation. Thus, our present results support the previous proposal that the enterococcal cytoplasmic pH is regulated by the F₁F₀ type of H⁺-ATPase.     

Purification and properties of H+-translocating, Mg2+-adenosine triphosphatase from vacuolar membranes of Saccharomyces cerevisiae

H+-translocating, Mg2+-ATPase was solubilized from vacuolar membranes of Saccharomyces cerevisiae with the zwitterionic detergent N-tetradecyl-N,N-dimethyl-3-ammonio-1-propanesulfonate and purified by glycerol density gradient centrifugation. Partially purified vacuolar membrane H+-ATPase, which had a specific activity of 18 units/mg of protein, was separated almost completely from acid phosphatase and alkaline phosphatase. The purified enzyme required phospholipids for maximal activity and hydrolyzed ATP, GTP, UTP, and CTP, with this order of preference. Its Km value for Mg2+-ATP was determined to be 0.21 mM and its optimal pH was 6.9. ADP inhibited the enzyme activity competitively, with a Ki value of 0.31 mM. The activity of purified ATPase was strongly inhibited by N,N'-dicyclohexylcarbodiimide, 1-ethyl-3-(3-dimethylaminopropyl)carbodiimide, tributyltin, 7-chloro-4-nitrobenzoxazole, diethylstilbestrol, and quercetin, but was not affected by oligomycin, sodium azide, sodium vanadate, or miconazole. It was not inhibited at all by antiserum against mitochondrial F1-ATPase or mitochondrial F1-ATPase inhibitor protein. These results indicated that vacuolar membrane H+-ATPase is different from either yeast plasma membrane H+-ATPase or mitochondrial F1-ATPase. The vacuolar membrane H+-ATPase was found to be composed of two major polypeptides a and b of Mr = 89,000 and 64,000, respectively, and a N,N'-dicyclohexylcarbodiimide binding polypeptide c of Mr = 19,500, whose polypeptide composition was also different from those of either plasma membrane H+-ATPase or mitochondrial F1-ATPase of S. cerevisiae.     

Controlled Proteolysis Mimics the Effect of Fusicoccin on the Plasma Membrane H+-ATPase

We analyzed the effects of controlled treatments with trypsin of plasma membrane (PM) isolated from radish (Raphanus sativus L.) seedlings on the activity of the PM H+-ATPase, and we compared them with those of fusicoccin (FC). Mild treatments of the PM with trypsin, which led to a decrease of the molecular mass of the peptide of about 10 kD, markedly increased the H+-ATPase activity. The effect strongly increased with the increase of pH of the assay medium from 6.1 to 7.5, so the pH optimum of the enzyme activity shifted from 6.8 in untreated PM to 7.1 in trypsin-treated PM. The proteolytic treatment activated only the portion of PM H+-ATPase activity that is stable to preincubation in assay medium in the absence of ATP and determined a strong increase of Vmax and a less marked decrease of the apparent Km for Mg-ATP. All of these effects were very similar to those determined by FC, which activated the PM H+-ATPase without promoting its proteolytic cleavage. FC did not further activate the H+-ATPase activity of trypsin-treated PM under conditions in which the FC receptor was protected from the attack of trypsin. Conversely, trypsin treatment had little effect on the PM H+-ATPase preactivated with FC. Moreover, the activity of the PM H+-ATPase preactivated with FC was not further activated by Iysolecithin. These results indicate that the modification of the PM H+-ATPase of higher plants triggered by the FC-receptor complex hinders the inhibitory interaction of the regulatory C-terminal domain with the active site.     

Ultracytochemical evidence for a proton-pump adenosine triphosphatase in chick osteoclasts

Summary The distribution of Mg^{+ +}-ATPase in osteoclasts along the endosteal surface of the chick tibia was investigated by neutral and alkaline pH cytochemical methods at the electron-microscopic level. Reaction product was observed in mitochondria, cytoplasmic vesicles, and ruffled-border membrane. Levamisole, ouabain, and vanadate did not affect the enzymatic activity. Para-chloromercuribenzoic acid (PCMB) prevented staining of mitochondria, ruffled border, and most cytoplasmic vesicles. Tri-n-butyltin decreased the amount of reaction product in cytoplasmic vesicles and ruffled-border membrane, but did not inhibit reaction product formation within mitochondria. Duramycin, which is a potent inhibitor for proton-pump ATPase, blocked reaction-product formation along the ruffled-border membrane, in mitochondria, and in cytoplasmic vesicles at alkaline pH, but not at neutral pH. It is concluded that the alkaline pH method for Mg^{+ +}-ATPase appears to demonstrate sites of proton-pump ATPase activity.     

Vacuolar H(+)-ATPase localized in plasma membranes of malaria parasite cells, Plasmodium falciparum, is involved in regional acidification of parasitized erythrocytes

Recent biochemical studies involving 2',7'-bis-(2-carboxyethyl)-5, 6-carboxylfluorescein (BCECF)-labeled saponin-permeabilized and parasitized erythrocytes indicated that malaria parasite cells maintain the resting cytoplasmic pH at about 7.3, and treatment with vacuolar proton-pump inhibitors reduces the resting pH to 6.7, suggesting proton extrusion from the parasite cells via vacuolar H(+)-ATPase (Saliba, K. J., and Kirk, K. (1999) J. Biol. Chem. 274, 33213-33219). In the present study, we investigated the localization of vacuolar H(+)-ATPase in Plasmodium falciparum cells infecting erythrocytes. Antibodies against vacuolar H(+)-ATPase subunit A and B specifically immunostained the infecting parasite cells and recognized a single 67- and 55-kDa polypeptide, respectively. Immunoelectron microscopy indicated that the immunological counterpart of V-ATPase subunits A and B is localized at the plasma membrane, small clear vesicles, and food vacuoles, a lower extent being detected at the parasitophorus vacuolar membrane of the parasite cells. We measured the cytoplasmic pH of both infected erythrocytes and invading malaria parasite cells by microfluorimetry using BCECF fluorescence. It was found that a restricted area of the erythrocyte cytoplasm near a parasite cell is slightly acidic, being about pH 6.9. The pH increased to pH 7.3 upon the addition of either concanamycin B or bafilomycin A(1), specific inhibitors of vacuolar H(+)-ATPase. Simultaneously, the cytoplasmic pH of the infecting parasite cell decreased from pH 7.3 to 7.1. Neither vanadate at 0.5 mm, an inhibitor of P-type H(+)-ATPase, nor ethylisopropylamiloride at 0.2 mm, an inhibitor of Na(+)/H(+)-exchanger, affected the cytoplasmic pH of erythrocytes or infecting parasite cells. These results constitute direct evidence that plasma membrane vacuolar H(+)-ATPase is responsible for active extrusion of protons from the parasite cells.