Lateral bud development and shoot growth in low-pruned Morus alba as affected by stem orientation

Two phases of bud activity were identified in the new growth of one-year-old erect coppice shoots on 11-year-old low-pruned stumps of mulberry (Morus alba L. cv. Shin-ichinose) in spring, the sprouting phase in which the majority of the buds, including the basal ones, sprout and elongate, and the dominance phase (starting 4–5 weeks after sprouting) during which the upper laterals begin to assert dominance and suppress the growth of lower laterals, becoming new leading shoots. In contrast, arching before sprouting markedly inhibited buds on the under side, leading to poor shoots. By late April, the sprouts on the upper side grew readily into new erect shoots, resulting in considerable dominance over those from the lateral sides. Of these erect shoots, those located closer to the stem base grew more in May and June. The effects of arching made during the sprouting phase (late April) on bud activity and shoot lengths were generally similar to those of earlier archings before spring bud bursting. Separation of the shoots from the upper and under sides by longitudinal, horizontal splitting of the arched stems in late April did not affect the inhibited elongation of the shoots from the under side. These results suggest that in the response to arching before and in late April, the effects are related to spring bud bursting and gravimorphism. In contrast, arching during and after the dominance phase (May) had no gravimorphic effects on growth of the shoots on the upper side, although there was a stimulation of outbreak of the buds on the upper side, which remained dormant during spring bud bursting. Continuous basal applications of abscisic acid in aqueous solution inhibited bud break and shoot growth of the postdormant erect stem segments, and defoliation of the new shoots markedly. In contrast, similar applications of an ethylene-releasing compound, Ethephon, depressed shoot elongation slightly, but enhanced defoliation greatly. Gibberellic acid (GA₃) stimulated shoot elongation, but depressed leaf enlargement.     

Dormancy and spring development of lateral buds in mulberry (Morus alba)

Patterns of spring development of lateral buds of mulberry (Morus alba L. cv. Shin-ichinose) coppice shoots on 11-year-old low-pruned stumps varied in response to girdling, pruning and arching. The erect controls showed a weak acrotonic (apex-favoring) growth habit, in which the majority of the buds, including the basal ones, sprouted and elongated in mid- and late April, and hence there was a prolonged imposition of dominance on the upper laterals in mid- and late May. In contrast, early spring girdling or pruning enhanced the activity of the upper buds of the proximal (lower) halves of the girdled stems or of the pruned stems, resulting in considerable dominance of the laterals from such buds in late April. Arching markedly inhibited buds on the under side of the arched stems, leading to poor shoots. By late April, the buds on the adaxial (upper) side readily grew into new vertical shoots, which dominated over the lateral ones. When studied by a multiple-node-cutting test, increased length of segments of post-dormant mulberry stems was accompanied by decreased bud activity of the segments and by decreased breaking ability of the lower buds within the segments, suggesting the importance of roots in the weak acrotonic habit of the erect stem in spring. By contrast, the acropetal influences of the attached stems can in part affect dominance relationships, perhaps mediated through competition for factors translocated from the roots. Continuous basal applications of abscisic acid inhibited bud break and shoot growth of the postdormant stem segments, but these inhibitory effects could be reversed by applied gibberellic acid A₃ (GA₃). Two phases of lateral bud dormancy in erect mulberry coppice shoots were identified. The first was characterized by a smaller breaking capacity in the upper buds than in the lower ones and hence by a basitonic (base-favoring) gradient in bud growth potential. The second phase corresponded to a restoration of these capabilities in the upper buds and to a change towards a linear gradient in bud growth potential, with disappearance of the dormant condition, in February and March. This gradient change during dormancy release may represent the physiological basis for the weak acrotonic habit of erect mulberry stems in spring.     

Apical dominance in mulberry (Morus alba): Effects of position of lateral and accessory buds and leaves

Suzuki, T. 1990. Apical dominance in mulberry ( Morus alba ): Effects of position of lateral and accessory buds and leaves. – Physiol. Plant. 78: 468-474.
Removing apical portions of current growth coppice shoots from field-grown, low-pruned stumps of mulberry ( Morus alba L. cv. Shin-ichinose) caused sprouting of one or more upper main buds, almost concurrently with that of accessory buds. However, removal of the new sprouts, including those from accessory buds, slightly enhanced the sprouting of buds immediately below them, and did not affect buds lower down. In contrast, mature leaves inhibited the buds in their axils. Budless, leafy nodes on the upper part of pruned shoots tended to swell after treatment, perhaps due to the accumulation of substances translocated from the roots and possibly from the remaining leaves. Lateral buds at different positions along the shoot differed in their sprouting ability with buds lower on the shoot being more inhibited. This inhibition gradient dissappeared when all coppice shoots on one stump were pruned to the same bud position, suggesting inhibition from neighboring, actively growing shoots. These results demonstrate that acropetal influences are important in bud dominance relationships.     

Shoot-tip abscission and adventitious abscission of internodes in mulberry (Morus alba)

In mulberry ( Morus alba L. cv. Shin-ichinose), shoot-tip abscission following the cessation of apical growth could be induced in different internodes, depending on the vigour of the shoot and its apex and other internal and external factors. In the lateral, short shoots of 1-year-old stems of low-pruned trees, the apical growth cessation and shoot-tip abscission (May–June) resulted primarily from the dominance of the upper, long shoots and intense competition among laterals along the stem. Decapitation of the laterals, before abortion of their apices took place (early May), readily caused adventitious abscission of the distal internode. Similar decapitation-induced, adventitious abscission of the distal internode of the upper, long shoots of 1-year-old stems of pruned trees also occurred (May–September), demonstrating that the abscission itself is not directly associated with photoperiod. In May and June, decapitation induced abscission primarily in parallel with or after sprouting of lateral buds and shoot elongation, while in July, August and September, the abscission was induced by decapitation and independently of sprouting. Shoot (stem) orientation positively affected the abscission, which is related to gravimorphic effects on buds and shoots on the lower and lateral sides of the horizontally trained stem. These results suggest that the vigour of shoots and apices is an important determinant of growth and apex abscission in mulberry.     

桑树肌动蛋白actin基因全长序列的克隆与分析

肌动蛋白在植物的各种生理活动中起着重要作用,是研究基因表达与调控模式的内标参考。通过染色体步移方法获得了桑树肌动蛋白actin基因1612bp的序列,该基因CDS长1312bp(GenBank登录号:HM623866),编码377个氨基酸残基,与水稻、葡萄等的同源基因的序列一致性在90%以上。基因内含子的数目及其在基因组上的位置也与水稻、葡萄等的相似。对来自不同物种的24个肌动蛋白基因进行聚类分析的结果显示,基因被分为ClassⅠ和ClassⅡ两个明显的亚群。     

Production of triploid plants of mulberry (Morus alba L) by endosperm culture

 A continuously growing callus was obtained from immature endosperm of Morus alba L Cv S-36 cultured on Murashige and Skoog medium containing 5 μm 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid. Shoot buds were produced when the callus was subcultured on a medium containing a cytokinin or a cytokinin and 1-naphthaleneacetic acid (NAA). The maximum number of shoots was formed on the medium containing thidiazuron (1 μM), or benzylaminopurine (5 μM) and NAA (1 μM). Shoots were multiplied by forced axillary branching and rooted in vitro. Endosperm-derived plants were established in soil. Each of the ten plants examined cytologically was triploid (3 n=42). Received:17 February 1999 / Revision received: 4 May 1999 / Accepted: 19 May 1999     

Occurrence of Hop Stunt Viroid in Mulberry (Morus alba) in Lebanon and Italy

The presence of Hop stunt viroid (HSVd) was detected using RT‐PCR and Northern blot hybridization in five of 60 samples from symptomless mulberry trees (Morus alba) collected in Italian and Lebanese orchards in July 2010. Infection levels were c. 10% in Lebanese and 8% in Italian samples. Nucleotide alignments showed that sequences of the mulberry HSVd isolates shared 95–96% identity with those of the same viroid occurring elsewhere. In a phylogenetic tree, mulberry HSVd isolates clustered together with those of HSVd‐citrus, regardless of their geographical origin. This is the first report of infection in mulberry trees by HSVd.     

The apical control of lateral bud development in excised shoot tips of Cuscuta reflexa cultured in vitro

Excised shoot tips of Cuscuta reflexa Roxb. (dodder), a rootless and leafless angiospermic plant parasite, were cultured in vitro for the study of the control of lateral bud development by the apex. In a chemically defined medium lacking hormones, the basal bud alone developed into a shoot. The addition of coconut milk to the growth medium induced the activation of multiple lateral buds, but only a single bud developed further into a shoot. The decapitation of this shoot induced the development of another shoot and the process could be repeated. This showed the controlling effect of the apex in correlative control of bud development. Application of indole-3-acetic acid to the shoot tip explant delayed the development of the lateral bud. Gibberellic acid A₃ induced a marked elongation growth of the explant and reinforced apical dominance. The direct application of cytokinin to an inhibited bud relieved it from apical dominance. A basipetally decreasing concentration gradient of auxin may prevail at the nodes. Bud outgrowth is probably stimulated by cytokinin produced locally in the bud.     

桑苗非结构性碳水化合物和生长激素对水淹胁迫的响应

桑(Morus alba)具有较强的耐水淹特性, 为了探究水淹胁迫对其非结构性碳水化合物和生长激素的影响, 揭示变化规律, 该研究采取室内模拟水淹实验, 以三年生盆栽桑苗作为研究对象, 设置对照组(CK)、根淹组(GY)、浅淹组(QY)、深淹组(SY)等4个不同水淹胁迫的处理, 定期观测并记录桑苗叶片非结构性碳水化合物(可溶性糖和淀粉)含量、内源生长激素(乙烯、脱落酸、赤霉素)含量变化情况。研究结果表明: (1)水淹胁迫会促进桑苗叶片内的生化反应, 造成叶片可溶性糖含量增加。水淹75天, GY、QY、SY桑苗叶片可溶性糖含量较水淹前分别增加182.18%、170.21%和94.16%, 差异显著, 且显著高于CK。水淹胁迫下桑苗叶片淀粉含量在水淹0-50天无显著变化, 水淹75天, GY、QY、SY桑苗叶片淀粉含量较水淹50天分别增加290.84%、244.65%和130.04%, 差异显著, 且显著高于CK。(2)水淹胁迫下桑苗叶片乙烯和赤霉素含量均显著增加, 水淹75天, GY和SY桑苗乙烯含量较水淹前分别增加62.80%和26.78%, 差异显著; GY、QY和SY桑苗赤霉素含量分别增加27.48%、18.02%和25.04%, 差异显著。随着水淹时间增加, GY和SY桑苗乙烯和赤霉素含量总体均呈增加趋势, QY桑苗乙烯和赤霉素含量先增后减, 但仍高于水淹前。水淹胁迫下水淹各组桑苗叶片脱落酸含量随着水淹深度的增加而增加, 水淹75天, QY和SY桑苗叶片脱落酸含量较水淹前分别增加19.20%和36.16%, 差异显著; GY桑苗脱落酸含量无显著变化。上述研究结果表明桑苗可通过调整体内非结构性碳水化合物(可溶性糖和淀粉)的含量和分配, 同时通过积累乙烯、赤霉素、脱落酸等内源激素以适应水淹环境, 具有较强耐淹能力。     

Phenological growth stages of mulberry tree (Morus sp.) codification and description according to the BBCH scale

Recently, mulberry fruits have increased rapidly the production and consumption, due to its high levels of bioactive compounds, excellent taste and nutritional value. Nevertheless there is poorly information about its phenology. In the present study, the different phenological growth stages of mulberry are characterised according to the BBCH (Biologische Bundesanstalt, Bundessortenamt Chemische Industrie) scale. Eight of the 10 principal developmental stages from BBCH scale were described for Morus sp., starting at bud development (stage 0) and ending at the senescence and beginning of the rest period (stage 9). The BBCH code for this species provides a consensual unified approach for standardisation of phenological stages in mulberry, moreover to facilitate agronomic practices.     

Apical dominance in Phaseolus vulgaris. The triggering effect of shoot decapitation and leaf excision on growth of the lateral buds

It was postulated that the release of lateral buds from apical dominance is triggered by the immediate increase in apoplastic water potential (hydrostatic pressure) that is produced by shoot decapitation and that is rapidly transmitted throughout the plant. In experiments conducted to test this hypothesis the use of a strain gauge transducer capable of measuring bud growth with an accuracy of ± 0.1 μm, showed that growth of the inhibited lateral bud at the primary leaf node of Phaseolus vulgaris (L.) ev. Canadian Wonder was initiated within 1 to 5 s following shoot decapitation or excision of the primary leaves. When only the apical bud was excised the lateral bud showed a brief, transitory growth response of ca 1 min duration, but the axillary buds of the first and second trifoliate leaves were released from inhibition. Decapitation of the shoot just below the first trifoliate leaf induced a lateral bud response characterized by three distinct stages: a) a rapid initial growth response with a mean duration of 4.9 min b) a period of arrested growth, which varied in duration from 2 min to 4 h and c) the subsequent resumption of growth.
Excision of both primary leaves induced a rapid but transitory bud response of considerably greater duration than that induced by apical bud excision. Excision of the primary leaves prior to decapitation of the shoot eliminated the phase of arrested growth, which characterized the bud response to decapitation of the intact plant. The rapidity of the bud response to both shoot decapitation and leaf excision and the interaction between the effect of these two treatments are consistent with the hypothesis that competition for water plays a major role in the correlative inhibition of lateral buds.     

Isolation and characterization of six novel microsatellite markers for mulberry (Morus indica)

Genetic characterization of germplasm resources is necessary for their effective management and efficient utilization, especially for species like mulberry in which the available germplasm exhibits rich phenotypic diversity with almost no information about its genetic base. Here we present the first report on the isolation of six novel microsatellite markers of mulberry, developed from an enriched genomic library of Morus indica. These markers revealed a high degree of polymorphism (14–26 alleles per locus; polymorphic information content, 0.85–0.90) and a broad cross‐species affinity when tested on a set of 43 elite genotypes including 13 related Morus species. The data thus demonstrate their utility as potentially efficient genetic markers for germplasm characterization, crop improvement and molecular systematics of mulberry.     

Identification and characterization of genes involved in the jasmonate biosynthetic and signaling pathways in mulberry(Morus notabilis)

Jasmonate(JA) is an important phytohormone regulating growth, development, and environmental response in plants, particularly defense response against herbivorous insects. Recently, completion of the draft genome of the mulberry(Morus notabilis) in conjunction with genome sequencing of silkworm(Bombyx mori) provides an opportunity to study this unique plant‐herbivore interaction. Here, we identified genes involved in JA biosynthetic and signaling pathways in the genome of mulberry for the first time, with the majority of samples showing a tissue‐biased expression pattern. The analysis of the representative genes 12‐oxophytodienoic acid reductase(OPRs) and jasmonate ZIM‐domain(JAZs) was performed and the results indicated that the mulberry genome contains a relatively small number of JA biosynthetic and signaling pathway genes. A gene encoding animportant repressor, MnNINJA, was identified as an alternative splicing variant lacking an ethylene‐responsive element binding factor‐associated amphiphilic repression motif. Having this fundamental information will facilitate future functional study of JA‐related genes pertaining to mulberry‐silkworm interactions.     

The sexual dimorphism displayed by the roots of mulberry (Morus alba) saplings depends on the sex of the neighboring plants

桑树幼苗根系表现出的性别二态性取决于相邻植株的性别 雌雄异株植物通常呈现性别二态性,但其雌株和雄株的根系性状和养分吸收如何响应相邻植株 的性别变化尚不清楚。本研究以中国广泛栽培的雌雄异株植物桑树(Morus alba)为试验对象,在水培环境 下,采取雌-雌、雄-雄和雌-雄3种组合种植模式进行试验。植株生长3个月后,分别测定雌雄植株根系的解剖结构、形态、营养浓度和生物量。研究结果表明,在水培环境中,与同性相邻相比,当桑树雄株与异性相邻时,其根系木质部变小,根和径生物量减少,根系中N、P、K浓度增加。相比,当桑树雌株与异性相邻时,其根系木质部变大,细根长度、表面积和体积以及根系δ¹³C和N、P、K浓度增加。雌雄植株根系δ¹³C和N、P、K浓度的变化与根系性状的改变有关。这些结果表明,相邻植株的性别影响了雌雄桑树根系解剖结构和形态。同时,雌雄植株对相邻植株性别改变的响应呈现性别二态性,这种二态性响应影响了雌雄植株水分利用效率和营养吸收。这些发现对于理解森林和自然系统中其它雌雄异株物种的种群动态变化具有重要意义。     

Agrobacterium-mediated transient MaFT expression in mulberry (Morus alba L.) leaves

To optimize Agrobacterium-mediated transient transformation assay in mulberry (Morus alba L.), various infiltration methods, Agrobacterium tumefaciens (A. tumefaciens) strains, and bacterial concentrations were tested in mulberry seedlings. Compared with LBA4404, GV3101 harboring pBE2133 plasmids presented stronger GUS signals at 3 days post infiltration using syringe. Recombinant plasmids pBE2133:GFP and pBE2133:GFP:MaFT were successfully constructed. Transient expression of MaFT:GFP protein was found in leaves, petiole (cross section), and shoot apical meristem (SAM) of mulberry according to the GFP signal. Moreover, MaFT:GFP mRNA was also detected in leaves and SAM via RT-PCR and qRT-PCR. An efficient transient transformation system could be achieved in mulberry seedlings by syringe using A. tumefaciens GV3101 at the OD₆₀₀ of 0.5. The movement of MaFT expression from leaves to SAM might trigger the precocious flowering of mulberry.     

In vitro induction of tetraploidy in mulberry (Morus alba L.)

A high frequency of tetraploidy was induced in mulberry (Morus alba L.) through apical bud treatment under in vitro conditions. Apical buds from in vitro-grown plants were treated with three different concentrations (0.05, 0.1 and 0.2%) of colchicine in MS medium for 24 h. Tetraploidy at a frequency of 39.4±4.8% was obtained using 0.1% colchicine, whereas the frequency of tetraploidy was significantly reduced to 16.7±2.3% when 0.2% colchicine was used. Morphological, histological and cytological evidence indicated a phenotypic and genomic similarity of in vitro- with ex vitro-induced tetraploids. Rooting of tetraploids was on basal medium containing 2.6 μm NAA. The recovery of tetraploids was 80.8% more efficient using the in vitro method instead of the ex vitro method. The use of the same colchicine medium for up to 4 weeks with additional explants was found to be equally effective for the induction of tetraploidy. Received: 6 January 1997 / Revision received: 6 October 1997 / Accepted: 12 December 1997     

间作对桑树和谷子生长和光合日变化的影响

以桑树和谷子为研究材料,探讨了大田条件下,桑树-谷子间作对桑树和谷子的干物质生产、土地利用率和光合日变化的影响.结果表明:桑树-谷子间作条件下,间作桑树的株高、地茎、根长和枝条数分别比单作桑树增加了6.0％、13.7％、6.8％和14.8％,且间作桑树的产叶量比单作桑树增加了31.3％;间作谷子与单作比较,其株高和根长的变化不大.桑树-谷子间作增加了土地当量比,提高了土地利用率.单作、间作桑树和谷子叶片在12:00时均表现出明显的光合午休现象,且单作桑树的光合午休现象比间作桑树严重.桑树-谷子间作提高了中午时桑树叶片气孔导度和水分利用率,增加了桑树光合碳同化能力,抑制了桑树叶片实际光化学效率、电子传递速率和最大光化学效率的下降,从而减缓了桑树的“光合午休”现象.桑树-谷子间作能明显提高桑树叶片的光合生产能力.