高等植物合子离体培养研究进展

合子是高等植物个体发育的第一个细胞,在研究植物个体发育机理中有着不可替代的位置。植物体内合子细胞分裂并以胚胎发生方式形成新个体的特征在植物生物工程应用中独具特色。随着离体受精技术的发展和合子分离技术的改进,已从多种植物中得到了人工合子和从体内直接分离出了合子。合子离体培养系统的建立为研究高等植物个体发育最初阶段的合子激活机理提供了条件,也为探索利用合子胚胎发生的特征进行植物基因工程打下了基础。另外,探索异种植物间人工杂种合子的培养也是进行远缘杂交的新尝试。     

一个高频率的活体-离体胚胎发生研究系统

通过对受精后烟草(Nicotiana tabacumL.)胚珠的体外培养,建立了一个简便、实用、高频率的胚胎发生研究系统。采用MS培养基附加6%蔗糖,然后换以2%蔗糖对烟草胚珠进行培养,结果受精后胚珠在体外可以完成正常的胚胎发生并可直接萌发成幼苗。追踪观察表明,合子体外胚胎发生过程中关键发育事件,如合子休眠期间的定向生长、一次不对称分裂的完成、胚柄的形成和解体、胚的分化等过程均可在体外重现。体外培养形成的胚珠及胚胎在形态上与自然状态下形成的胚珠及胚胎几乎没有差异。此体系操作简单,稳定性好,且关键发育事件的时空调控与自然胚胎发育进程相吻合。     

高等植物离体受精研究进展

高等植物的卵细胞深藏在子房内的胚珠体细胞组织中,形成了对高等植物受精过程研究的技术障碍。以前采用超微结构观察研究受精过程已取得了一定的结果,但用固定切片技术研究受精机理需将卵细胞杀死,并且不能进行定点追踪观察。将高等植物的精、卵细胞分离出来在体外诱导其融合的离体受精技术可在很大程度上克服这些技术障碍,对雌、雄配子的识别和融合,合子开始胚胎发生等一系列的受精和胚胎发生机理进行研究。分离的雌、雄配子及合子使应用分子生物学方法研究这些细胞的结构和功能成为可能。将合子的二倍性和胚胎发生特性与外源DNA转入技术结合起来可使转基因植物研究的后期工作简单化。另外,异种植物离体精、卵细胞融合和杂种合子的培养也是进行远缘杂交的一条有潜力的途径。     

牛体外受精胚胎的基因组甲基化模式

利用抗5-甲基胞嘧啶(5MeC)抗体免疫荧光法检测了体外成熟(IVM)、体外受精(IVF)和体外培养(IVC)的牛合子及早期胚胎的基因组甲基化模式. 实验结果表明: 有61.5%的合子发生了雄原核去甲基化, 而34.6%的合子没有发生去甲基化; 当胚胎发育到8-细胞时, 甲基化水平明显下降, 且一直到桑椹胚期仍维持低甲基化状态, 但同一枚胚胎的不同卵裂球之间甲基化水平不同; 在囊胚期, 内细胞团细胞的甲基化水平很低, 而滋养层细胞的甲基化水平却很高. 本研究结果至少部分地提示, IVM/IVF/IVC可能对牛合子及早期胚胎的甲基化模式有一定影响.     

哺乳动物早期胚胎的基因表达及其调控

哺乳动物的早期发育包括合子的形成、胚胎基因组的活化和细胞开始分化等。在这段时期,精蛋白被组蛋白取代;二倍体形成后甲基化的单倍体亲本基因组经历了脱甲基作用;母本控制的发育被合子控制所取代。此外,在染色体调节的转录抑制状态形成之后,胚胎基因组活化,但基因的有效表达需要有增强子。这种转录抑制状态的产生很可能发生在染色质结构水平,因为诱导组蛋白过乙酰化可免除对增强子的需求。早期胚胎的mRNA表达模式与在体内或体外成功发育的关系,对确定最佳培养条件和核移植程序是必不可少的。     

小鼠母源因子对早期胚胎发育的影响

在脊椎动物中发育过程中,卵母细胞要经历MII期停滞、受精、早期胚胎发育的启动、胚胎基因组的转录激活、并指导完成个体的发育过程。同时,核移植过程中,分化的细胞核在去核的卵母细胞中能够重编程到胚胎早期的状态并能完成个体的发育过程。在这些发育过程中母源因子都发挥了极其的重要作用。在小鼠胚胎发育研究中发现,小鼠的基因组激活发生在2细胞期,这一时期标志着合子的发育由卵母细胞控制向胚胎控制的过渡,期间发生一系列复杂的生化过程。体外培养的小鼠的胚胎的发育阻断也易发生的2细胞时期。因此对卵母细胞及早期胚胎母源因子的研究,将有利于了解早期体外培养胚胎和克隆胚胎发育失败的原因,为提高体外培养和克隆胚胎发育的成功率提供理论的基础。     

怀孕前后酒精摄入对雌鼠植入前胚胎DNA甲基化模式建立的影响

女性怀孕前后饮酒会对胎儿的发育及神经系统造成不利影响,称为“胎儿酒精综合征”（fetal alcohol spectrum disorders,FASD）。小鼠通常作为研究该病的动物模型。该实验采用体外培养技术及体内冲胚法研究雌鼠怀孕前后酒精摄入对各期植入前胚胎全基因组DNAT基化模式建立的影响。小鼠植入前胚胎体外培养实验发现,体外实验组I（怀孕前酒精处理组1,除8-cell外,其他各期胚胎的DNA甲基化水平明显低于体外对照组;体外实验组II（正常胚胎在含乙醇的培养基中培养）,各期植入前胚胎DNA甲基化水平均明显低于体外对照组。体内实验发现,体内实验组I（怀孕前酒精处理组）与体内的实验组II（怀孕后酒精处理组）,各期植入前胚胎DNA甲基化水平明显低于体内对照组。体内、外实验结果表明：受精前后酒精对各期植入前胚胎DNA甲基化模式的正确建立造成紊乱,该结果可为进一步揭示FSAD发病机制提供一定的实验基础。     

小鼠植入前胚胎GCN5和HDAC1表达模式及体外培养对其表达的影响

为探讨小鼠植入前胚胎组蛋白乙酰化酶GCN5(general control of nucleotide synthesis,GCN5) 和组蛋白去乙酰化酶1(histone deacetyluse1,HDAC1)的表达模式及常规体外培养对它们表达的影响,应用荧光免疫细胞化学技术,检测了体内和体外培养的小鼠2、4、8细胞期卵裂胚胎、桑葚胚和囊胚GCN5和HDAC1的表达。结果显示,GCN5在体内组各细胞期卵裂胚胎和桑葚胚的细胞浆内均呈高表达,细胞核内未见明显表达,而囊胚细胞的细胞浆和细胞核内均无表达:HDAC1在体内组小鼠2细胞期胚胎中以细胞浆内表达为主,在其他各期胚胎均以细胞核内表达为主．囊胚期内细胞团部分细胞的细胞核内未见HDAC1表达。GCN5在体外组小鼠植入前各期胚胎均不表达,而 HDAC1的表达强度明显低于体内组的。提示体外培养抑制小鼠植入前胚胎GCN5和明显降低 HDAC1的表达,影响胚胎基因的正确性表达。     

离体受精作为技术平台在被子植物有性生殖研究中的应用

被子植物的离体受精10a前在玉米中已获得成功,尽管目前只在玉米获得完全成功和小麦获得部分成功,但离体受精技术的研究成果非常显著。目前离体受精技术已被用于其他的研究,如用分离的精细胞和卵细胞筛选配子细胞的特异基因和蛋白质：研究合子细胞被激活的机理：用不同种植物的精、卵细胞体外融合进行新的远缘杂交尝试;利用合子细胞易分裂和胚胎发生特征探索用其作为转基因研究的受体细胞等。以离体受精技术为基础在高等植物发育生物学和生殖生物学领域的基础研究和应用探索显示了巨大潜力。介绍了离体受精技术在被子植物有性生殖的研究成果和应用前景,为研究和利用被子植物有性生殖过程中的生殖细胞特征提供线索。     

小鼠植入前胚胎GCN5和HDAC1表达模式及体外培养对其表达的影响

为探讨小鼠植入前胚胎组蛋白乙酰化酶GCN5（general control of nucleotide synthesis,GCN5）和组蛋白去乙酰化酶1（histone deacetylasel,HDAC1）的表达模式及常规体外培养对它们表达的影响,应用荧光免疫细胞化学技术,检测了体内和体外培养的小鼠2、4、8细胞期卵裂胚胎、桑葚胚和囊胚GCN5和HDAC1的表达。结果显示,GCN5在体内组各细胞期卵裂胚胎和桑葚胚的细胞浆内均呈高表达,细胞核内未见明显表达,而囊胚细胞的细胞浆和细胞核内均无表达：HDACl在体内组小鼠2细胞期胚胎中以细胞浆内表达为主,在其他各期胚胎均以细胞核内表达为主。囊胚期内细胞团部分细胞的细胞核内未见HDAC1表达。GCN5在体外组小鼠植入前各期胚胎均不表达。而HDAC1的表达强度明显低于体内组的。提示体外培养抑制小鼠植入前胚胎GCN5和明显降低HDAC1的表达,影响胚胎基因的正确性表达。     

Tobacco zygotic embryogenesis in vitro: the original cell wall of the zygote is essential for maintenance of cell polarity, the apical-basal axis and typical suspensor formation

We have developed a reliable in vitro zygotic embryogenesis system in tobacco. A single zygote of a dicotyledonous plant was able to develop into a fertile plant via direct embryogenesis with the aid of a co-culture system in which fertilized ovules were employed as feeders. The results confirmed that a tobacco zygote could divide in vitro following the basic embryogenic pattern of the Solanad type. The zygote cell wall and directional expansion are two critical points in maintaining apical-basal polarity and determining the developmental fate of the zygote. Only those isolated zygotes with an almost intact original cell wall could continue limited directional expansion in vitro, and only these directionally expanded zygotes could divide into typical apical and basal cells and finally develop into a typical embryo with a suspensor. In contrast, isolated zygote protoplasts deprived of cell walls could enlarge but could not directionally elongate, as in vivo zygotes do before cell division, even when the cell wall was regenerated during in vitro culture. The zygote protoplasts could also undergo asymmetrical division to form one smaller and one larger daughter cell, which could develop into an embryonic callus or a globular embryo without a suspensor. Even cell walls that hung loosely around the protoplasts appeared to function, and were closely correlated with the orientation of the first zygotic division and the apical-basal axis, further indicating the essential role of the original zygotic cell wall in maintaining apical-basal polarity and cell-division orientation, as well as subsequent cell differentiation during early embryo development in vitro.     

N-acetylglucosamine and glucosamine-containing arabinogalactan proteins control somatic embryogenesis

In plants, complete embryos can develop not only from the zygote, but also from somatic cells in tissue culture. How somatic cells undergo the change in fate to become embryogenic is largely unknown. Proteins, secreted into the culture medium such as endochitinases and arabinogalactan proteins (AGPs) are required for somatic embryogenesis. Here we show that carrot (Daucus carota) AGPs can contain glucosamine and N-acetyl-D-glucosaminyl and are sensitive to endochitinase cleavage. To determine the relevance of this observation for embryogenesis, an assay was developed based on the enzymatic removal of the cell wall from cultured cells. The resulting protoplasts had a reduced capacity for somatic embryogenesis, which could be partially restored by adding endochitinases to the protoplasts. AGPs from culture medium or from immature seeds could fully restore or even increase embryogenesis. AGPs pretreated with chitinases were more active than untreated molecules and required an intact carbohydrate constituent for activity. AGPs were only capable of promoting embryogenesis from protoplasts in a short period preceding cell wall reformation. Apart from the increase in embryogenesis, AGPs can reinitiate cell division in a subpopulation of otherwise non-dividing protoplasts. These results show that chitinase-modified AGPs are extracellular matrix molecules able to control or maintain plant cell fate.     

被子植物的早期胚胎形态建成

被子植物早期胚胎形态建成是其有性生殖过程中一个重要发育阶段。在这一阶段中,被子植物形体基本特征形成,包括顶-基轴极性建立、不同细胞层分化以及分生组织形成。合子极性直接与顶基细胞命运相关,但其极性产生机理仍然不明。研究表明,WOX家族转录因子、生长素定向运输以及生长素响应应答可能参与了早期顶-基模型建成;辐射对称模型的建立可能由细胞与细胞间相互作用来介导;生长素流可能参与胚胎顶端组织形成。该文对近年来被子植物早期胚胎形态建成过程中的合子极性建立与生长、合子分裂及其顶基细胞的形成、胚根原特化及根极的形成、辐射对称模式及表皮原特化、顶端分生组织特化及子叶起始等方面的研究进展进行了综述。     

Establishment of an in vitro fertilization system in rice (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Oryza sativa</Emphasis> L.)

In vitro fertilization (IVF) systems using isolated male and female gametes have been utilized to dissect fertilization-induced events in angiosperms, such as egg activation, zygote development and early embryogenesis, as the female gametophytes of plants are deeply embedded within ovaries. In this study, a rice IVF system was established to take advantage of the abundant resources stemming from rice research for investigations into the mechanisms of fertilization and early embryogenesis. Fusion of gametes was performed using a modified electrofusion method, and the fusion product, a zygote, formed cell wall and an additional nucleolus. The zygote divided into a two-celled embryo 15–24 h after fusion, and developed into a globular-like embryo consisting of an average of 15–16 cells by 48 h after fusion. Comparison of the developmental processes of zygotes produced by IVF with those of zygotes generated in planta suggested that zygotes produced by IVF develop and grow into early globular stage embryos in a highly similar manner to those in planta. Although the IVF-produced globular embryos did not develop into late globular-stage or differentiated embryos, but into irregularly shaped cell masses, fertile plants were regenerated from the cell masses and the seeds harvested from these plants germinated normally. The rice IVF system reported here will be a powerful tool for studying the molecular mechanisms involved in the early embryogenesis of angiosperms and for making new cultivars.     

Establishment of cell polarity during early plant development

Cellular asymmetries have been proposed to play a role in plant embryogenesis. Genetic studies of Arabidopsis and other experimental approaches in several plant species have addressed the origins of cellular asymmetry in specific cases. Although zygote polarity, which precedes the formation of the apical—basal axis of the embryo, is normally aligned with that of the surrounding maternal tissue, isolated single somatic cells that give rise to embryos in culture appear to become polar in the absence of maternal factors. Gene expression patterns reveal the developmental consequences of cellular asymmetries occurring at later stages of embryogenesis. Genetic evidence suggests that these cellular asymmetries are established in response to as yet unidentified signals from adjacent cells.     

ZYGOTE-ARREST 3 that encodes the tRNA ligase is essential for zygote division in Arabidopsis

In sexual organisms, division of the zygote initiates a new life cycle. Although several genes involved in zygote division are known in plants, how the zygote is activated to start embryogenesis has remained elusive.Here, we showed that a mutation in ZYGOTE-ARREST 3(ZYG3) in Arabidopsis led to a tight zygote-lethal phenotype.Map-based cloning revealed that ZYG3 encodes the transfer RNA(tRNA) ligase AtRNL, which is a single-copy gene in the Arabidopsis genome. Expression analyses showed that AtRNL is expressed throughout zygotic embryogenesis, and in meristematic tissues. Using pAtRNL::cAtRNL-sYFP-complemented zyg3/zyg3 plants, we showed that AtRNL is localized exclusively in the cytoplasm, suggesting that tRNA splicing occurs primarily in the cytoplasm. Analyses using partially rescued embryos showed that mutation in AtRNL compromised splicing of intron-containing tRNA.Mutations of two tRNA endonuclease genes, SEN1 and SEN2, also led to a zygote-lethal phenotype. These results together suggest that tRNA splicing is critical for initiating zygote division in Arabidopsis.     

Regeneration of zygotic-like microspore-derived embryos suggests an important role for the suspensor in early embryo patterning

The inaccessibility of the zygote and proembryos of angiospermswithin the surrounding maternal and filial tissues has hamperedstudies on early plant embryogenesis. Somatic and gametophyticembryo cultures are often used as alternative systems for molecularand biochemical studies on early embryogenesis, but are notwidely used in developmental studies due to differences in theearly cell division patterns with seed embryos. A new Brassicanapus microspore embryo culture system, wherein embryogenesishighly mimics zygotic embryo development, is reported here.In this new system, the donor microspore first divides transverselyto form a filamentous structure, from which the distal cellforms the embryo proper, while the lower part resembles thesuspensor. In conventional microspore embryogenesis, the microsporedivides randomly to form an embryonic mass that after a whileestablishes a protoderm and subsequently shows delayed histodifferentiation.In contrast, the embryo proper of filament-bearing microspore-derivedembryos undergoes the same ordered pattern of cell divisionand early histodifferentiation as in the zygotic embryo. Thisobservation suggests an important role for the suspensor inearly zygotic embryo patterning and histodifferentiation. Thisis the first in vitro system wherein single differentiated cellsin culture can efficiently regenerate embryos that are morphologicallycomparable to zygotic embryos. The system provides a powerfulin vitro tool for studying the diverse developmental processesthat take place during the early stages of plant embryogenesis. Key words: Brassica napus, microspore embryogenesis, pattern formation, polarity, suspensor, zygotic embryogenesis     

Embryogenesis, a process of pattern formation

Plant embryogenesis is traditionally defined as a develop-mental process from zygote to mature embryo, which has the potential to form a complete plant (Bhojwani, 1974; Hu,2005).In dicotyledonous species, the fertilized egg or zygote usually divides according to a stereotyped pattern and gives rise to an embryo that consists of an embryonic shoot,cotyledons, hypocotyls, and an embryonic root.Thus, the basic body plan of the plant is established during the embryogenesis.Interestingly, the shoot-leaf-stem structure,not including the root, is repeatedly photocopied as a basic unit throughout plant vegetative growth (Wolpert et al.,2002).