Dosage analysis of Z chromosome genes using microarray in silkworm,Bombyx mori

In many organisms, dosage compensation is needed to equalize sex-chromosome gene expression in males and females. Several genes on silkworm Z chromosome were previously detected to show a higher expression level in males and lacked dosage compensation. Whether silkworm lacks global dosage compensation still remains poorly known. Here, we analyzed male:female (M:F) ratios of expression of chromosome-wide Z-linked genes in the silkworm using microarray data. The expression levels of genes on Z chromosome in each tissue were significantly higher in males compared to females, which indicates no global dosage compensation in silkworm. Interestingly, we also found some genes with no bias (M:F ratio: 0.8–1.2) on the Z chromosome. Comparison of male-biased (M:F ratio more than 1.5) and unbiased genes indicated that the two sets of the genes have functional differences. Analysis of gene expression by sex showed that M:F ratios were, to some extent, associated with their expression levels. These results provide useful clues to further understanding roles of dosage of Z chromosome and some Z-linked sexual differences in silkworms.     

家蚕BmRpt4基因在翅膀发育中的功能研究

【目的】研究分析编码蛋白酶体调控复合物亚基基因BmRpt4(Regulatoryparticletriple-A ATPase4,BGIBMGA010794)在家蚕翅膀发育过程中的功能。【方法】利用CRISPR/Cas9基因组编辑技术,将BmRpt4的gRNAs和Cas9mRNA直接注射到家蚕胚胎中,观察G0代家蚕个体雏翅率,并分析雏翅个体中BmRpt4基因突变情况。【结果】经统计,对照组G0代家蚕个体均表现为正常翅,而实验组注射BmRpt4的gRNAs和Cas9 mRNA后,G0代约66.7%家蚕个体表现出小翅表型。在分子水平上对小翅表型个体进行检测,发现BmRpt4基因在两个gRNA及其之间位置均有不同长度片段的缺失或者插入,说明在这些突变个体中BmRpt4基因被不同程度的敲除,从而其功能缺失,导致出现小翅表型。【结论】该研究结果表明编码蛋白酶体调控亚基的BmRpt4基因在家蚕翅膀发育中具有重要作用,为蛋白酶体在生物组织器官发育中调控作用研究提供重要实验依据。     

Serial analysis of gene expression in the silkworm, Bombyx mori

The silkworm Bombyx mori is one of the most economically important insects and serves as a model for Lepidoptera insects. We used serial analysis of gene expression (SAGE) to derive profiles of expressed genes during the developmental life cycle of the silkworm and to create a reference for understanding silkworm metamorphosis. We generated four SAGE libraries, one from each of the four developmental stages of the silkworm. In total we obtained 257,964 SAGE tags, of which 39,485 were unique tags. Sorted by copy number, 14.1% of the unique tags were detected at a median to high level (five or more copies), 24.2% at lower levels (two to four copies), and 61.7% as single copies. Using a basic local alignment search tool on the EST database, 35% of the tags matched known silkworm expressed sequence tags. SAGE demonstrated that a number of the genes were up- or down-regulated during the four developmental phases of the egg, larva, pupa, and adult. Furthermore, we found that the generation of longer cDNA fragments from SAGE tags constituted the most efficient method of gene identification, which facilitated the analysis of a large number of unknown genes.     

Artificial insemination using cryopreserved sperm in the silkworm,Bombyx mori

We report in this paper that female moths artificially inseminated with cryopreserved sperm (-196 degrees C) could oviposit eggs when the sperm was preserved for 356days, and that the fertilization rate and the number of eggs laid were almost equivalent to those obtained in normally mated moths. The optimal cooling rate for sperm freezing was 5-65 degrees C/min for maintaining a high fertility of sperm. The simple and reliable method of cryopreservation was to put the semen first in a deep freezer at -80 degrees C and thereafter put them in liquid nitrogen. When female moths of 'white 2' egg-color mutant strain were inseminated with a mixture of frozen-thawed sperm from males of normal-colored egg strain and non-frozen sperm from males of the 'white 2', female moths deposited a majority of 'white 2' eggs and a very small number of eggs of normal color. The result shows that there was a competitive fertilization of sperm between the two strains of the silkworm, and that sperm fertility was reduced to a considerable extent by freezing at -196 degrees C. These results may contribute not only to basic studies on fertilization in Lepidoptera but also to the development of long-term preservation procedure of genetic resources by using cryopreserved sperm of Bombyx mori.     

Artificial insemination using trypsin-treated sperm in the silkworm,Bombyx mori

A new method was developed for artificial insemination of the silkworm. Virgin females artificially inseminated by this method oviposited fertilized eggs at a rate almost similar to that of females mated with males. Using inactive sperm collected from the seminal vesicles, we confirmed the previous finding by Omura, S., 1936a, Artificial insemination of Bombyx mori, Journal of Faculty of Agriculture, Hokkaido Imperial University 38, 135-150, and Omura, S., 1938, Studies of the reproductive system of the male of Bombyx mori II, Post-testicular organs and post-testicular behaviour of the spermatozoa, Journal of Faculty of Agriculture, Hokkaido Imperial University 40, 129-170, that the sperm of B. mori requires the secretion of the glandula prostatica for activation. Sperm also could be activated by trypsin. At an optimal concentration, 0.3 &mgr;g trypsin/ml in 50% semen solution, the fertilization rate as well as the number of eggs oviposited was almost equivalent to that obtained in normally mated moths. These results may contribute not only to basic studies on fertilization and reproduction in Lepidoptera but also to the development of long-term preservation of genetic resources by using cryopreserved sperm of B. mori and other Lepidoptera insects.     

Dietary sterol preference in the silkworm, Bombyx mori

Since insects are unable to biosynthesize sterols de novo, sterols must be obtained from dietary sources. Although it has been reported that beta-sitosterol is crucial for larval growth in the silkworm, Bombyx mori, little has been investigated concerning the dietary selection of sterols by Bombyx larvae. Here, we demonstrate that Bombyx larvae have the following sterol preference: beta-sitosterol > ergosterol > cholesterol = stigmasterol. Interestingly, Bombyx larvae preferred ergosterol, an inhibitory sterol on larval growth, indicating that sterol selection following first contact of the diet with the mouth part might be different from the sterol recognition mechanism present in sterol metabolism.     

Proteome analysis of silk gland proteins from the silkworm, Bombyx mori

The silk gland of Bombyx mori is an organ specialized for the synthesis and secretion of silk proteins. We report here the resolution of silk gland proteins by 2-DE and the identification of many of those proteins. This was accomplished by dissecting the glands into several sections, with each exhibiting more than 400 protein spots by 2-DE, of which 100 spots were excised and characterized by in-gel digestion followed by PMF. Ninety-three proteins were tentatively identified. These were then categorized into groups involved in silk protein secretion, transport, lipid metabolism, defense, etc. Western blotting of a 2-DE gel using an antibody of the carotenoid binding protein confirmed the presence of this protein in the silk gland. Proteins including fibroin L-chain and P25 were found as multiple isoforms, some of which contained differential amounts of phosphate residues as analyzed by on-probe dephosphorylation. The current analysis contributes to our understanding of proteins expressed by the silk gland not only of the model lepidopteran B. mori, but also to proteins from other silk-producing insects such as Philosamia cynthia ricini.     

Sterol composition in larvae of the silkworm, Bombyx mori

Sterols in silkworm larvae were analyzed. Cholesterol was predominantly detected in all tissues examined. Dietary phytosterols and desmosterol, a putative biosynthetic intermediate from phytosterols to cholesterol, were also detected, indicating that imperfect intestinal conversion from phytosterols to cholesterol influences the sterol composition in larval tissues.     

Shotgun analysis on the peritrophic membrane of the silkworm Bombyx mori

The insect midgut epithelium is generally lined with a unique chitin and protein structure, the peritrophic membrane (PM), which facilitates food digestion and protects the gut epithelium. We used gel electrophoresis and mass spectrometry to identify the extracted proteins from the silkworm PM to obtain an in-depth understanding of the biological function of the silkworm PM components. A total of 305 proteins, with molecular weights ranging from 8.02 kDa to 788.52 kDa and the isoelectric points ranging from 3.39 to 12.91, were successfully identified. We also found several major classes of PM proteins, i.e. PM chitin-binding protein, invertebrate intestinal mucin, and chitin deacetylase. The protein profile provides a basis for further study of the physiological events in the PM of Bombyx mori. [BMB Reports 2012; 45(11): 665-670]     

The G protein-coupled receptors in the silkworm,Bombyx mori

G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) are the largest and most versatile family of transmembrane receptors in the cell, occupying the highest hierarchical positions in the regulation of many physiological processes. Although they have been extensively studied in a number of model insects, there have been few investigations of GPCRs in large Lepidopterans, such as Bombyx mori, an organism that provides a means to perform detailed tissue expression analyses, which may help to characterize GPCRs and their ligands. In addition, B. mori, also known as the silkworm, is an insect of substantial economic importance, due to its use in silk production and traditional medicines. In this work, we computationally identified 90 putative GPCRs in B. mori, 33 of which represent novel proteins. These GPCRs were annotated and compared with their homologs in Drosophila melanogaster and Anopheles gambiae. Phylogenetics analyses of the GPCRs from these three insects showed that GPCRs may easily duplicate or disappear during insect evolution, especially in the neuropeptide and protein hormone receptor subfamily. Interestingly, we observed a decrease in the quantity and diversity of the stress-tolerance gene, Methuselah, in B. mori, which may be related to its long history of domestication. Moreover, the presence of many Bombyx-specific GPCRs suggests that neither Drosophila nor Anopheles is good representatives for the GPCRs in the Class Insecta.     

D-Glutamic acid-induced muscle contraction in the silkworm, Bombyx mori

Agonists for muscle contraction in silkworms were screened by injecting test solutions into the hemolymph of decapitated silkworm larvae. Kainic acid, a glutamate receptor agonist, and D-glutamic acid induced muscle contractions, and D-aspartic acid was partially effective, whereas NMDA and AMPA, representative mammalian glutamate receptor agonists, did not induce contraction. L-Glutamic acid inhibited the kainic acid or D-glutamic acid-induced contraction. Amino acid analysis revealed that 3% of the total glutamic acid in the silkworm hemolymph is D-glutamic acid. These results suggest that d-glutamic acid acts physiologically as an agonist for muscle contraction in silkworms, and that L-glutamic acid functions as an inhibitor.     

家蚕FoxG转录因子的鉴定及其在精巢发育中的功能初探

[目的]Fox家族蛋白是调控动物发育的关键转录因子.本文分析了鳞翅目昆虫家蚕Bombyxmori的BmFoxG亚家族蛋白在精巢发育中的作用,为基于生殖系统的家蚕性状优化或害虫不育技术的开发提供理论依据.[方法]利用PCR克隆家蚕BmFoxG-1 和 BmFoxG-2基因;通过生物信息学工具对BmFoxG蛋白的结构及理化性质进行分析;采用qPCR技术检测BmFoxG基因在家蚕不同发育阶段的精巢中的表达变化;在家蚕Bm12细胞株中过表达BmFoxG-1,并通过qRT-PCR分析BmFoxG-1调控的靶基因.[结果]本文克隆获得了 BmFoxG-1(933 bp)和 BmFoxG-2(702 bp)两个基因.BmFoxG-1 和 BmFoxG-2蛋白均包含保守的Forkhead结构域,但BmFoxG-1蛋白在C端多出约60个氨基酸.BmFoxG-2基因在家蚕不同发育时期的精巢中的表达量均较低;BmFoxG-1 的表达均显着高于BmFoxG-2,且随着发育时期而变化,暗示BmFoxG-1参与精巢的发育.生殖细胞发育基因BmVasa、BmCyclinA等多个细胞周期基因以及精子鞭毛发育相关基因BMSK0009828在不同发育阶段的精巢中的表达趋势与BmFoxG-1类似,且BmFoxG-1在家蚕细胞中的过表达可以显著上调BmVasa、BmCyclinA和BMSK0009828等精巢发育相关基因的表达.[结论]我们推测BmFoxG-1蛋白可能通过调节精巢细胞周期或生殖细胞的功能来调节家蚕精巢的发育.     

FLP recombinase-mediated site-specific recombination in silkworm, Bombyx mori

A comprehensive understanding of gene function and the production of site-specific genetically modified mutants are two major goals of genetic engineering in the post-genomic era. Although site-specific recombination systems have been powerful tools for genome manipulation of many organisms, they have not yet been established for use in the manipulation of the silkworm Bombyx mori genome. In this study, we achieved site-specific excision of a target gene at predefined chromosomal sites in the silkworm using a FLP/FRT site-specific recombination system. We first constructed two stable transgenic target silkworm strains that both contain a single copy of the transgene construct comprising a target gene expression cassette flanked by FRT sites. Using pre-blastoderm microinjection of a FLP recombinase helper expression vector, 32 G3 site-specific recombinant transgenic individuals were isolated from five of 143 broods. The average frequency of FLP recombinase-mediated site-specific excision in the two target strains genome was approximately 3.5%. This study shows that it is feasible to achieve site-specific recombination in silkworms using the FLP/FRT system. We conclude that the FLP/FRT system is a useful tool for genome manipulation in the silkworm. Furthermore, this is the first reported use of the FLP/FRT system for the genetic manipulation of a lepidopteran genome and thus provides a useful reference for the establishment of genome manipulation technologies in other lepidopteran species.     

Identification of the Z-W bivalent in the silkworm,Bombyx mori

None of the 56 chromosomes including sex chromosomes have been identified in the silkworm so far, though the 28 linkage groups have been determined (Doira, 1986). The present study aims to demonstrate the sex chromosome bivalent in the oocyte by using a particular strain, the sex-limited yellow cocoon (Sy), in which a large fragment of the second chromosome was translocated onto the W chromosome. Among 28 bivalents in the oocyte of the Sy strain, an asymmetrical synaptonemal complex was observed, while in the oocyte of the control strains no such complex was found. We consider this complex as the Z-W bivalent in the silkworm.     

Genome-wide analysis of cytochrome P450 monooxygenase genes in the silkworm, Bombyx mori

Based on the advances in the silkworm genome project, a new genome-wide analysis of cytochrome P450 genes was performed. A total of 84 CYP-related sequences were identified and could be classified into 26 families and 47 subfamilies according to standard nomenclature. Seventy eight of the eighty four genes appear to be functional and six are probable pseudogenes. The distribution of Bombyx mori P450s in the genome shows that most of them are tandem arranged on chromosomes, only 34 genes are present as singletons, with 8 clusters including 3 or more than 3 genes. Sequence alignments were used to reconstruct phylogenetic trees and to analyze the intron-exon organizations of the functional genes. The conserved intron positioning agrees perfectly with their common grouping on the tree. The presence of three extremely ancient introns which are conserved across different clans indicates that a few introns are still highly conserved after they have undergone extensive evolutionary changes of B. mori P450 duplication and divergence. Comparison of the P450s from B. mori to the P450s from Drosophila melanogaster shows that the expansion is not uniform across the gene families. Remarkably, two mitochondrial families, the B. mori CYP333 and D. melanogaster Cyp12, formed two orthologous groups in the phylogenetic tree. All CYP333s can be proposed to be related to xenobiotic metabolism in accordance with the D. melanogaster Cyp12s. The characterization and evolutionary analysis of P450s from B. mori in the current study provide useful information for understanding the characteristics and diversity of P450s from B. mori and the baseline for functional analyses of individual P450s in this model Lepidopteran insect.     

The pathway of ammonia assimilation in the silkworm,Bombyx mori

Ammonia can easily be assimilated into amino acids and used for silk-protein synthesis in the silkworm, Bombyx mori. To determine the metabolic pathway of ammonia assimilation, silkworm larvae were injected with methionine sulfoximine (MS), a specific inhibitor of glutamine synthetase (GS). Activity of GS in the fat body 2h after treatment with 400&mgr;g MS decreased to less than 10% of the control activity, whereas MS had no effect on the activity of glutamate dehydrogenase (GDH), another enzyme which could possibly be responsible for ammonia assimilation. Glutamine concentration in the hemolymph rapidly decreased after MS treatment, while the ammonia level in the hemolymph sharply increased. Glutamine concentration in the hemolymph 4h after injection decreased with increasing doses of MS, whereas ammonia concentration increased in proportion to the MS dose. MS strongly blocked the incorporation of (15)N label into silk-protein in larvae injected with (15)N ammonia acetate, while it slightly inhibited the incorporation of (15)N-amide glutamine into silk-protein. These results suggest that ammonia is mainly assimilated into glutamine via the action of GS and then converted into other amino acids for silk-protein synthesis and that GDH does not play a major role in ammonia assimilation in B. mori.