Signal transduction events induced by extracellular guanosine 5′triphosphate in excitable cells

A better understanding of the physiological effects of guanosine-based purines should help clarify the complex subject of purinergic signalling. We studied the effect of extracellular guanosine 5′ triphosphate (GTP) on the differentiation of two excitable cell lines that both have specific binding sites for GTP: PC12 rat pheochromocytoma cells and C2C12 mouse skeletal muscle cells. PC12 cells can be differentiated into fully functional sympathetic-like neurons with 50–100 ng ml⁻¹ of nerve growth factor, whereas serum starvation causes C2C12 cells to differentiate into myotubes showing functional excitation–contraction coupling, with the expression of myosin heavy chain proteins. Our results show that GTP enhances the differentiation of both of these excitable cell lines. The early events in guanosine-based purine signal transduction appear to involve an increase in intracellular Ca²⁺ levels and membrane hyperpolarization. We further investigated the early activation of extracellular-regulated kinases and phosphoinositide 3-kinase in GTP-stimulated PC12 and C2C12 cells, respectively. We found that GTP promotes the activation of both kinases. Together, our results suggest that, even if there are some differences in the signalling pathways, GTP-induced differentiation in both cell lines is dependent on an increase in intracellular Ca²⁺.     

细胞肥大过程中hhLIM的亚细胞定位变化及其对细胞骨架的影响

hhlim (humanheartlim)是从人胎心cDNA文库中筛选克隆的一个新基因 ,作为LIM家族的新成员参与心肌肥大的发生发展过程 .为了进一步研究hhLIM在心肌肥大发生过程中的作用 ,以C2C12细胞为研究对象 ,以心肌肥大强效刺激因子内皮素 1(ET 1)为诱导因素 ,探讨hhLIM与肌动蛋白的相互作用及其影响细胞骨架的分子机制 .RT PCR、Western印迹和细胞免疫荧光分析结果表明 ,心肌肥大刺激因子ET 1在诱导心肌肥大标志基因BNP和肌动蛋白表达的同时 ,使hhLIM蛋白在C2C12细胞胞核与胞质之间进行重新定位 .激光共聚焦显微镜观察结果显示 ,hhLIM与肌动蛋白在胞质中共定位 .蛋白分步提取、鉴定及hhLIM与F肌动蛋白结合与沉降实验证明 ,hhLIM多存在于细胞骨架及其相关蛋白部分 ,在体外可与F肌动蛋白共结合 .这些结果表明 ,胞质中的hhLIM作为细胞骨架相关蛋白与肌动蛋白相互作用 .进一步研究hhLIM与细胞骨架的关系时发现 ,hhLIM过表达可使C2C12细胞的骨架变成致密网状纤维并使其对细胞松弛素导致的细胞骨架解聚产生一定的抵抗作用 ,抑制hhLIM表达则使细胞骨架稀疏 ,结构模糊 .提示hhLIM参与细胞骨架组织及重构的机制与其结合并稳定F肌动蛋白有关 .     

绵羊Myostatin基因启动子的功能分析

相比于Myostatin基因的作用机制而言, 对Myostatin基因转录和表达的调控机制了解很少. 为了更好地了解Myostatin基因5’调控区的结构和功能, 深入研究Myostatin基因的转录调控机制, 在最近的研究中克隆了绵羊Myostatin基因的启动子(Pro)序列(GenBank 登录号为AY918121). 进一步以EGFP为报告基因, 构建了各种长度的野生型MSTNPro^W-EGFP载体和E-box元件突变型MSTNPro^EM-EGFP载体, 通过转染C2C12小鼠骨骼肌成肌细胞系或绵羊成纤维细胞后, 对各种情况下EGFP的瞬时或稳定表达进行荧光定量分析而比较不同条件下绵羊Myostatin基因启动子的转录调控活性. 结果表明, 0.3~1.2 kb的绵羊Myostatin基因启动子都能不同程度地驱动EGFP在C2C12细胞中的转录和表达, 其中1.2 kb片段的转录调控活性最高. 然 而, 将绵羊1.2 kb MSTNPro^W-EGFP载体转染绵羊成纤维细胞后并未观察到EGFP的表达, 说明Myostatin基因表达的肌肉特异性源于启动子的转录特异性. 对稳定转染绵羊1.2 kb MSTNPro^W-EGFP载体的C2C12细胞进行荧光分析, 结果表明细胞生长密度的增加可以反馈性抑制Myostatin基因的转录和表达. 在C2C12分化状态下, 1.2 kb野生型绵羊Myostatin基因启动子的活性比成肌状态时显著升高, 而1.2 kb E(3+5+7)突变型Myostatin基因启动子的活性在C2C12分化前后并未表现出差别. 这一结果暗示肌肉调控因子MyoD可能是通过与E-box结合而引起Myostatin基因在C2C12分化和生长状态时转录和表达差异的一个原因.     

肌肉增强子因子2对猪肌肉生长抑制素启动子活性的调节

肌肉生长抑制素(Myostatin,Mstn)是转化生长因子-β超家族的成员,在哺乳动物的骨骼肌生长和分化过程中起负调控作用,其转录调控受到多个基因的影响,其中肌肉增强子因子2(MEF2)是重要的调控因子之一。因此,对猪Mstn启动子上MEF2位点及其作用方式的探讨具有重要意义。首先,通过PCR方法扩增了猪Mstn基因上游1 969 kb的启动子序列,利用生物信息学方法分析该序列包含3个MEF2的结合位点;其次,采用逐步删除的方法获得5个长度不等的启动子,用荧光素酶报告系统评估了它们在小鼠成肌细胞C2C12中的活性。其次,转入含有MEF2结合位点的启动子片段和MEF2C表达载体,可以显著增强启动子活性2～6倍,高表达另一亚型MEF2A则启动子活性没有明显改变。最后,转入MEF2C表达载体,用实时定量PCR和Western blotting方法检测Mstn的转录和蛋白水平的变化,结果发现mRNA升高了2～4倍;在肌管细胞中,蛋白翻译水平也有显著升高。这些结果显示,MEF2C可以通过激活Mstn参与猪肌肉生长和发育阶段的调节。研究为Mstn基因的转录调控提供了有效的作用靶点和效应分子,为进一步探讨Mstn的功能调控提供了一种新的思路。     

不同氧浓度下C2C12细胞的Nrf2抗氧化系统对H2O2刺激的反应*

目的:探讨不同氧浓度下小鼠骨骼肌卫星细胞系(C2C12细胞)对H₂O₂刺激反应的变化及其机制。方法:小鼠骨骼肌卫星细胞系(C2C12细胞),经培养复苏后,将细胞分为7组,每组设8个复孔,各组分别加入浓度为0.1 mmol/L、0.25 mmol/L、0.5 mmol/L、0.75 mmol/L、1 mmol/L、2 mmol/L的H₂O₂,分别作用1 h、2 h后测细胞活力,选择细胞H₂O₂刺激的最佳作用时间和浓度;C2C12细胞分为不同氧浓度组:21% O₂、12% O₂、8% O₂、5% O₂每组设8个复孔,12 h后,H₂O₂作用1 h,收集细胞;检测细胞Nrf2蛋白荧光和蛋白表达量,测定Nrf2和抗氧化酶SOD1、SOD2、CAT、NQO-1、HO-1、GPX-1 的mRNA表达量及细胞ROS水平。结果:选择H₂O₂作用时间相对较短的1 h和浓度0.5 mmol/L作为本实验的H₂O₂刺激条件。与21%O₂组相比,12%O₂组细胞Nrf2蛋白荧光增强,Nrf2 的mRNA和蛋白表达以及抗氧化酶SOD1、SOD2、CAT、NQO-1、HO-1、GPX-1的 mRNA表达均显著增加(P＜0.05或P＜0.01),细胞 ROS水平明显降低(P＜0.01);8%O₂组仅GPX-1 mRNA显著增加(P＜0.05),其他指标变化不大;5%O₂组细胞 Nrf2 mRNA和蛋白表达以及抗氧化酶SOD1、SOD2、NQO-1、GPX-1的 mRNA表达均明显降低(P＜0.05或P＜0.01),细胞 ROS水平则明显升高(P＜0.01)。结论:不同氧浓度下C2C12细胞中Nrf2介导的抗氧化系统对H₂O₂刺激反应不同,12 h的12% O₂浓度可促进C2C12细胞Nrf2的抗氧化作用,而5% O₂浓度的严重低氧则作用相反。     

Monoclonal antibodies identify a possible regulatory domain of MyoD1.

A panel of monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) to murine MyoD1 was generated. One set of mAbs is shown to react with epitope(s) in the cysteine/histidine-rich (C/H) region while another set is shown to react with epitope(s) in the C-terminal portion of MyoD1. One of the mAbs reactive with a C-terminal epitope sensitively detected MyoD1 in whole cell extracts by Western blotting. Time course studies of total protein accumulation during C2C12 myoblast differentiation revealed only subtle changes in the phosphorylation and quantity of MyoD1 protein present in C2C12 cells from induction to 120 hr after induction. These results suggest that modulation of MyoD1 protein or total phosphorylation levels is not tightly associated with the transition of undifferentiated myoblasts to differentiated myocytes. Monoclonal antibodies to the C-terminal epitope produced supershifted bands in gel retardation assays, indicating that these mAbs had no effect on DNA binding. Although the C/H region of MyoD1 does not participate in DNA binding, mAbs reactive with the C/H region neutralized this activity in gel retardation assays. These data suggest that the conserved C/H domain may serve to modulate MyoD1 DNA-binding activity by interacting with another regulator.     

逆转录病毒载体介导的RNA干扰稳定抑制肌肉生长抑制素GDF-8的表达

为将肌肉生长抑制素的干扰序列表达盒hU6-siGDF-8有效导入肌成纤维细胞C2C12中, 以pAV-hU6 + 27载体为基础构建逆转录病毒载体pXSN-hU6-siGDF-8, 并使之与pVSV-G质粒共转染GP-293细胞, 用包装出的病毒粒子感染宿主细胞C2C12, G418筛选稳定整合逆转录病毒的抗性细胞库。2周后, Western Blotting和Real-Time PCR分析结果显示, 细胞内源性的GDF-8基因的表达得到了有效的抑制; MTT法和细胞流式仪分析表明, G418抗性细胞得到了更有效的增殖, 并且G0/G1期细胞数量减少了13.7%, S期细胞数量增加了14.9%。因此, 逆转录病毒载体的RNA干扰系统可以稳定抑制 GDF-8基因表达, 它将成为治疗肌肉萎缩疾病的一个强有力的工具。     

逆转录病毒载体介导的RNA干扰稳定抑制肌肉生长抑制素GDF-8的表达

为将肌肉生长抑制素的干扰序列表达盒hU6-siGDF-8有效导入肌成纤维细胞C2C12中, 以pAV-hU6 + 27载体为基础构建逆转录病毒载体pXSN-hU6-siGDF-8, 并使之与pVSV-G质粒共转染GP-293细胞, 用包装出的病毒粒子感染宿主细胞C2C12, G418筛选稳定整合逆转录病毒的抗性细胞库。2周后, Western Blotting和Real-Time PCR分析结果显示, 细胞内源性的GDF-8基因的表达得到了有效的抑制; MTT法和细胞流式仪分析表明, G418抗性细胞得到了更有效的增殖, 并且G0/G1期细胞数量减少了13.7%, S期细胞数量增加了14.9%。因此, 逆转录病毒载体的RNA干扰系统可以稳定抑制 GDF-8基因表达, 它将成为治疗肌肉萎缩疾病的一个强有力的工具。     

siRNA介导的MKK4表达抑制研究

采用脂质体转染方法,将3对(siRNA ID#64447、siRNA ID#64539和siRNA ID#186583)人工合成的MKK4基因特异的小分子干扰RNA(siRNA)分别导入小鼠成肌细胞C2C12中.实时荧光定量PCR结果表明,转染了siRNA ID#64447的细胞,其MKK4 mRNA的表达水平下调得最多,约为85%.试验获得了能够高效下调MKK4基因表达的siRNA.     

Effects of compressive force on the differentiation of pluripotent mesenchymal cells

The purpose of this study was to determine the effect of mechanical stress on the differentiation of the pluripotent mesenchymal cell line C2C12. C2C12 cells were cultured continuously under compressive force (0.25-2.0 g/cm(2)). After mechanical stress loading, the levels of expression of mRNAs and proteins for phenotype-specific markers of osteoblasts (Runx2, Msx2, Dlx5, Osterix, AJ18), chondroblasts (Sox5, Sox9), myoblasts (MyoD), and adipocytes (PPAR gamma) were measured by real-time polymerase chain reaction analysis and Western blot analysis, respectively. The expression of activated p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase (p38 MAPK) was measured by Western blotting and/or ELISA. Loading 0.5 g/cm(2) of compressive force significantly increased the expression levels of Runx2, Msx2, Dlx5, Osterix, Sox5, and Sox9. In contrast, the expression levels of AJ18, MyoD, and PPAR gamma were decreased by exposure to 0.5 g/cm(2) of compressive force. Loading 0.5 g/cm(2) of compressive force also induced the phosphorylation of p38 MAPK. SB203580, which is a specific inhibitor of p38 MAPK, inhibited the compressive force-induced phosphorylation of p38 MAPK and partially blocked compressive force-induced Runx2 mRNA expression. These results demonstrate that compressive force stimulation directs the differentiation pathway of C2C12 cells into the osteoblast and chondroblast lineage via activated phosphorylation of p38 MAPK.     

Involvement of p38 MAPK-mediated signaling in the calpeptin-mediated suppression of myogenic differentiation and fusion in C2C12 cells

Calpeptin inhibits myoblast fusion by inhibiting the activity of calpain. However, the mechanism by which calpeptin inhibits myogenesis is not completely understood. This study examined how calpeptin affects the expression of the myogenic regulatory factors (MRFs) and the phosphorylation of p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) in differentiating C2C12 myoblasts. Consistent with previous reports, calpeptin inhibited the induction of μ-calpain and the formation of myotubes in these cells. In particular, calpeptin inhibited the expression of the early and mid differentiation markers including MyoD, Myf5, myogenin, and MRF4 as well as the expression of the late markers such as troponin T and myosin heavy chain (MyHC). Calpeptin also suppressed the phosphorylation of p38 MAPK in C2C12 cells. SB203580, a specific p38 inhibitor, prevented the expression of the muscle-specific markers and their fusion into myotubes in these cells, which was further accelerated in the presence of calpeptin. These findings suggest that calpeptin inhibits the myogenesis of skeletal muscle cells by down-regulating the MRFs and involving p38 MAPK signaling.     

A novel functional assessment of the differentiation of micropatterned muscle cells

Duchenne muscular dystrophy (DMD) is a lethal disease characterized by rapid, progressive atrophy of muscle tissues. Timely screening of therapeutic interventions is necessary for the development of effective treatment approaches for DMD. We have developed an in vitro model using a combination of micropatterning of C2C12 skeletal muscle cells and cell traction force microscopy (CTFM). In this model, C2C12 cells were micropatterned on a highly elongated adhesive island such that the cells assumed a shape typical of a myotube. During differentiation, these cells gradually fused together and began expressing dystrophin, a structural protein of myotubes, meanwhile, their contractile forces, represented by cell traction forces, continually increased until the myotubes reached maturation. In addition, the high-degree alignment of cells favored myotube differentiation and dystrophin expression. Since the fundamental structural unit of muscle tissue is myofiber, which is responsible for muscle contraction, such a technology that can directly quantify the contractile forces of the myotube, a precursor of myofiber, may constitute a fast and efficient screening approach for DMD therapies.