The early years of coeducation at the Yale University School of Medicine.

The Yale School of Medicine began accepting women as candidates for the degree of medicine in the fall of 1916. This decision was consistent with the trend in medical education at the time. While Yale was not the first prestigious Eastern medical school to admit women, joining Johns Hopkins (1893) and the University of Pennsylvania (1914), it was not one of the last. Columbia University College of Physicians and Surgeons admitted women a year later, but Harvard Medical School held out until 1945. The years 1916--1920 saw the number of women enrolled in medical school almost double. Yale''s decision to admit women seems to have been made with little resistance from the faculty. The final decision was made through the encouragement and financial help of Henry Farnam, a professor of economics at Yale, who agreed to pay for the women''s bathrooms. His daughter, Louise, was in the first class of women. At graduation she was awarded the highest scholastic honors, the Campbell Gold Prize. From Yale she travelled to the Yale-sponsored medical school in Changsha, China, where she became the first female faculty member, a position she held for twelve years. The impressions of Ella Clay Wakeman Calhoun, the only woman to graduate in the second class of women, are presented here. Since 1916 the Yale School of Medicine has undergone extensive physical and philosophical changes, developments in which women have participated.     

History of the Department of Pediatrics Yale University School of Medicine.

The history of pediatrics at the Yale University School of Medicine can be divided into eight historical eras. The "Paleohistorical Era" included colonial figures such as Governor John Winthrop and Hezekiah Beardsley who wrote about children''s disease in colonial times. Eli Ives, Professor of the Diseases of Children at Yale Medical School gave the first systematic pediatric course in America in the first half of the nineteenth century. During the second era, from 1830-1920, the New Haven Hospital was opened. An affiliation between Yale University and the New Haven Hospital led to the formal establishment of clinical departments including pediatrics in the early 20th century. Six eras coinciding with successive pediatric chairman have led the department to its present respected position in American pediatrics. The department''s 75th anniversary in 1996 is an occasion to recognize many of the department''s accomplishments and leaders over the years. It is also a time to reaffirm the mission of the department: to the health needs of the children of Connecticut and beyond, to the advancement of scientific knowledge of infants and children and their diseases, and to the training and educational of the pediatric clinicians, educators and investigators of the future.     

At Odds over Inbreeding: An Abandoned Attempt at Mexico/United States Collaboration to “Improve” Mexican Corn, 1940–1950

During the first years of organized agricultural research in Mexico in the 1940s, two agencies ran separate programs for corn improvement. The Rockefeller Foundation’s Office of Special Studies and the Mexican government’s Office of Experiment Stations (later called the Agricultural Research Institute) carried out research on corn with distinct aims and methods. That they differed strongly is well established in the literature. Many authors have discussed a Rockefeller Foundation program that reportedly emphasized hybrid corn, a technical choice that embodied a preference for assisting wealthy farmers who could afford hybrid corn and the necessary agricultural inputs. Conversely, these authors attribute to the Mexican program a focus on open-pollinated corn, which presumably manifested its concern for Mexico’s small farmers who saved seed. This article argues that the reverse was true. The Rockefeller Foundation program initially was committed to a type of improved open-pollinated corn while the Mexican program proceeded with a strict, U.S.-style hybrid program. I try to illuminate each group’s priority on yield, as well as additional significant, and complicating, breeding priorities that precluded any collaboration between the two. This article was written while the author was a postdoctoral fellow in the History of Science and Medicine Program at Yale University. She would like to thank John Beatty and Sally Gregory Kohlstedt for their support on this project, and Daniel Kevles, Kevin Francis, the Writing History group at Yale, and four anonymous reviewers for insightful and helpful comments on earlier drafts of this article.     

Sino-Canadian Collaborations in Stem Cell Research: A Scientometric Analysis

Background

International collaboration (IC) is essential for the advance of stem cell research, a field characterized by marked asymmetries in knowledge and capacity between nations. China is emerging as a global leader in the stem cell field. However, knowledge on the extent and characteristics of IC in stem cell science, particularly China’s collaboration with developed economies, is lacking.

Methods and Findings

We provide a scientometric analysis of the China–Canada collaboration in stem cell research, placing this in the context of other leading producers in the field. We analyze stem cell research published from 2006 to 2010 from the Scopus database, using co-authored papers as a proxy for collaboration. We examine IC levels, collaboration preferences, scientific impact, the collaborating institutions in China and Canada, areas of mutual interest, and funding sources. Our analysis shows rapid global expansion of the field with 48% increase in papers from 2006 to 2010. China now ranks second globally after the United States. China has the lowest IC rate of countries examined, while Canada has one of the highest. China–Canada collaboration is rising steadily, more than doubling during 2006–2010. China–Canada collaboration enhances impact compared to papers authored solely by China-based researchers This difference remained significant even when comparing only papers published in English.

Conclusions

While China is increasingly courted in IC by developed countries as a partner in stem cell research, it is clear that it has reached its status in the field largely through domestic publications. Nevertheless, IC enhances the impact of stem cell research in China, and in the field in general. This study establishes an objective baseline for comparison with future studies, setting the stage for in-depth exploration of the dynamics and genesis of IC in stem cell research.     

The Scientific Impact of Nations: Journal Placement and Citation Performance

International collaboration is becoming increasingly important for the advancement of science. To gain a more precise understanding of how factors such as international collaboration influence publication success, we divide publication success into two categories: journal placement and citation performance. Analyzing all papers published between 1996 and 2012 in eight disciplines, we find that those with more countries in their affiliations performed better in both categories. Furthermore, specific countries vary in their effects both individually and in combination. Finally, we look at the relationship between national output (in papers published) and input (in citations received) over the 17 years, expanding upon prior depictions by also plotting an expected proportion of citations based on Journal Placement. Discrepancies between this expectation and the realized proportion of citations illuminate trends in performance, such as the decline of the Global North in response to rapidly developing countries, especially China. Yet, most countries'' show little to no discrepancy, meaning that, in most cases, citation proportion can be predicted by Journal Placement alone. This reveals an extreme asymmetry between the opinions of a few reviewers and the degree to which paper acceptance and citation rates influence career advancement.     

Insulin research in China and the U.K

Insulin has been extensively studied since it was discovered by Banting and Best in 1921. Early in 1934, Dorothy Crowfoot and John Desmond Bernal obtained the first X-ray diffraction photograph of an enzyme protein: pepsin. In 1935, they took another photograph of a protein hormone: insulin. The chemical structure of protein was unknown until the amino acid sequence of bovine insulin was solved by Fred Sanger and colleagues in 1955. In 1958, the chemical synthesis of bovine insulin started in China through a nationwide collaboration of three institutions: the Institute of Biochemistry in Shanghai, the Institute of Organic Chemistry in Shanghai and Beijing University. The total synthesis of bovine insulin in crystalline form was accomplished in 1965. The success of the synthesis of the first protein in vitro greatly encouraged young researchers in China. Not long afterwards, the project of structural analysis of insulin crystal was carried out in China through the collaboration of the Institute of Biophysics, the Institute of Physics and Beijing University, and succeeded in 1971. In Dorothy Hodgkin's laboratory in Oxford, X-ray diffraction studies of insulin crystals were resumed after about 30 years, and the structure of rhombohedral insulin crystal was solved in 1969. Through insulin research, the Institute of Biophysics in Beijing and the Institute of Biochemistry in Shanghai established scientific collaboration and personal friendship with Dorothy Hodgkin's laboratory in Oxford, and later Guy Dodson's laboratory in York and Tom Blundell's laboratory in London. In 1975, Dorothy Hodgkin wrote a short note, 'Chinese work on insulin' in Nature, anticipating closer scientific exchange between the East and the West. In 1982, a bilateral meeting between the Biochemical Societies in the U.K. and China was held in Oxford. Now, the second bilateral meeting held in Shanghai will further promote the collaboration between our two countries.     

Helping Science and Drug Development to Succeed through Pharma-Academia Partnerships: Yale Healthcare Conference 2013

The theme of the 2013 Yale Healthcare Conference was “Partnerships in Healthcare: Cultivating Collaborative Solutions.” The April conference brought together leaders across several sectors of health care, including academic research, pharmaceuticals, information technology, policy, and life sciences investing. In particular, the breakout session titled “Taking R&D Back to School: The Rise of Pharma-Academia Alliances” centered on the partnerships between academic institutions and pharmaceutical companies. Attendees of the session included members of the pharmaceutical industry, academic researchers, and physicians, as well as graduate and professional students. The discussion was led by Dr. Thomas Lynch of Yale University. Several topics emerged from the discussion, including resources for scientific discovery and the management of competing interests in collaborations between academia and the pharmaceutical industry.     

Pioneering studies of the "morning-after" pill

Yale School of Medicine produced the first proof-of-concept study on the viability of a "morning-after" pill for human use. This study was a result of a fruitful collaboration between a pair of Yale scientists, Drs. John M. Morris and Gertrude van Wagenen, who sought a non-abortion, post-coital contraceptive. They tested a variety of hormones, hormone-based synthetic drugs, and other compounds in monkeys in an effort to uncover a compound that was non-toxic but highly effective. Unfortunately, although they were unable to identify such a drug, their initial studies inspired other scientists to further pursue the concept of a "morning-after" pill, leading to the development of Food and Drug Administration (FDA)-approved emergency contraceptives.     

Collaboration on Display: A Yup'ik Eskimo Exhibit at Three National Museums

In the following pages I describe what happens when an exhibit dense in local meanings enters the national arena. The Yup'ik mask exhibit Agayuliyararput (Our Way of Making Prayer) began as "visual repatriation"—bringing objects out of museums back into a local context—and ended as a tribal exhibit displayed in three very different majority institutions, including an American Indian museum, a natural history museum, and an art museum. The mask exhibit was developed as a three-way collaboration between Yup'ik community members, an anthropologist, and museum professionals. As it traveled farther from home, not only the objects but the process that produced the exhibit were differently presented. While majority institutions chase the language of collaboration, their institutional structures constrain how such collaborations are played out. For the "insider's perspective" of a locally grounded exhibit to survive, majority institutions must not only display the results of collaboration, but participate in the process, [collaboration, masks, museum exhibits, repatriation, Yup'ik Eskimos]     

Cooperation in Health: Mapping Collaborative Networks on the Web

Objective

To map and investigate the relationships established on the web between leading health-research institutions around the world.

Methods

Sample selection was based on the World Health Organization (WHO) Collaborating Centres (CCs). Data on the 768 active CCs in 89 countries were retrieved from the WHO''s database. The final sample consisted of 190 institutions devoted to health sciences in 42 countries. Data on each institution''s website were retrieved using webometric techniques (interlinking), and an asymmetric matrix was generated for social network analysis.

Findings

The results showed that American and European institutions, such as the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), the National Institutes of Health (NIH) and the National Institute of Health and Medical Research (INSERM), are the most highly connected on the web and have a higher capacity to attract hyperlinks. The Karolinska Institute (KI-SE) in Sweden is well placed as an articulation point between several integrants of the network and the component''s core but lacks general recognition on the web by hyperlinks. Regarding the north-south divide, Mexico and Brazil appear to be key southern players on the web. The results showed that the hyperlinks exchanged between northern and southern countries present an abysmal gap: 99.49% of the hyperlinks provided by the North are directed toward the North itself, in contrast to 0.51% that are directed toward the South. Regarding the South, its institutions are more connected to its northern partners, with 98.46% of its hyperlinks directed toward the North, and mainly toward the United States, compared with 1.54% toward southern neighbors.

Conclusion

It is advisable to strengthen integration policies on the web and to increase web networking through hyperlink exchange. In this way, the web could actually reflect international cooperation in health and help to legitimize and enhance the visibility of the many existing south-south collaboration networks.     

炎症性肠病与艰难梭菌感染相关性研究的文献计量学和可视化分析

【背景】近年来,炎症性肠病患者中艰难梭菌（Clostridium difficile）感染率逐年上升,受到国内外学者广泛关注。我国在该领域的研究起步较晚,但患者数量众多,学习国际上对于炎症性肠病合并艰难梭菌感染的研究,对推动我国在该领域的深入发展具有重要意义。【目的】通过文献计量和可视化分析帮助研究者把握炎症性肠病与艰难梭菌感染相关性研究中的研究主题、方向、热点与前沿。【方法】同时检索Web of Science （WOS）中Science Citation Index Expanded （SCI-E）和CNKI中收录的关于炎症性肠病和艰难梭菌的相关文献,应用CiteSpace 6.2.2r软件进行国家/地区、机构、作者、关键词共现及被引文献、期刊共被引分析,同时进行可视化分析。【结果】经过数据检索和查重,最终可供分析的文献为WOS数据库1 030篇、CNKI数据库80篇。全球范围内,发文最多的国家是美国,主要研究机构有Harvard University、University of California System和Mayo Clinic等,高产作者有Khanna S、Shen B和Ananthakrishnan AN等,高频关键词包括Inflammatory bowel disease、Ulcerative colitis、Clostridium difficile、Clostridium difficile infection和Crohn’s disease等,聚类方向有#0 Diarrhea、#1 Ulcerative colitis、#2 Probiotics、#3 Pouchitis、#4 Gut microbiota、#5 Fecal microbiota transplantation、#6 Depression、#7 Entamoeba histolytica、#8 Pseudomembranous colitis、#9 Clostridium difficile和#10 Clindamycin。国内主要研究机构有南方医科大学和河北医科大学,高产作者有王浦、王斯淇等,高频关键词包括粪菌移植、艰难梭菌、肠道菌群、危险因素和克罗恩病等,聚类方向有#0艰难梭菌、#1益生菌、#2危险因素、#3腹泻和#4粪菌移植。【结论】利用CiteSpace软件对炎症性肠病和艰难梭菌感染相关性研究进行计量及可视化分析可知,该方向仍得到全球各医疗机构及研究者的关注,腹泻及粪菌移植这两个关键词分别代表了WOS数据库和CNKI数据库关于炎症性肠病合并艰难梭菌感染研究的热点。     

Pater Davids Hirsch oder Milu (Elaphurus davidianus Milne Edwards, 1866), 150 Jahre, 1865 bis 2015

The population of the Père David's deer or milu (Elaphurus davidianus), which was discovered in China by Père Armand David in 1866, has grown from five, or even merely three individuals, imported from China to approximately 5000 during a time-span of 140 years. We tried to find out more about the origin of the 18 individuals which formed the original herd of the 11^th Duke of Bedford at Woburn Abbey. His breeding-group was the only safeguard for this species between the years 1900 and 1946. Of the 18 individuals three were offspring of Berlin Zoo, three originated from Cologne Zoo and probably all the rest came from the Jardin d‘Acclimatation in Paris. The origin of the breeding herd at the Jardin d‘Acclimatation is not clear. The first individuals either came from Berlin Zoo or were imported directly from China in the years between 1876 and 1886. In Berlin Zoo's breeding records there is a remarkable gap for the years 1879 and 1880. If they came from Berlin Zoo, the imported male and two females would be the sole founders of the herd, and if the Jardin d‘Acclimatation had done an own import, then there would be at least five founders. At Berlin Zoo at least 18 milu calves were born between the years 1878 and 1895. The final destinations of most of these could be traced in literature. Some of them are not quite conclusive yet. We sketched the development of the worldwide zoo-stock of Père David's deer, the return to China and the re-settlement in the original habitat in newly established reserves and finally even outside the reserves. After centuries the milu has again gained the status of a free-living species thanks to the efforts of several zoological gardens, the Dukes of Bedford and the Chinese conservation authorities.     

The Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology at Yale: the first one hundred fifty years,from Nathan Smith to Lee Buxton.

The persons who directed the academic teaching of women''s health at Yale Medical School are presented by biographical sketches recounting their achievements and some of the difficulties they encountered. Three who provided particular catalysis were Nathan Smith, Herbert Thoms, and Lee Buxton.     

Evolution of the field of ecological restoration over the last three decades: a bibliometric analysis

Ecological restoration studies have been widely conducted for many years to solve eco‐environmental problems. However, no publications offer a systematic and quantitative analysis of the evolution of the field of ecological restoration. To address this knowledge gap, for the first time, we applied a bibliometric analysis approach to analyze ecological restoration studies. We analyzed 3,929 articles published between 1988 and 2017 catalogued in the Science Citation Index Expanded database and the Social Sciences Citation Index database. The results show that annual article output stably increased after 2004, and the number of annual articles of each country has also increased notably since then. The United States occupies the leading position in ecological restoration studies, with China attaining a close second position in recent years. Four institutions and seven journals are outstanding in the field of ecological restoration. Academic collaborations of authors or institutions exhibit an increasing trend, but international collaboration needs to be strengthened because eco‐environmental problems are a global challenge. Forest, grassland, and wetland ecosystems have received the most attention. Biodiversity, ecosystem services, and climate change are core issues of ecological restoration studies and are predicted to remain the research hotspots in the future. Novel ecosystems are likely to become one of the most important research areas in the near future. More importantly, it is crucial for researchers to places more emphasis on social issues of ecological restoration in the future.     

The crisscrossed agency of a toast: Personhood,individuation and de‐individuation in Luzhou,China

This article addresses debates over individuation in China through consideration of guanxi‐relational feasting in Luzhou, Sichuan. I draw on Ortner's theorisation of subjectivity and agency to probe the often taken‐for‐granted question of cultural personhood which informs social action. Although the social imaginary in Luzhou is increasingly colonised by symbolic individualism, I propose that dominant local notions of personhood and agency, operating within feast practice, continue to define this process. By attending to three aspects of Yan's ‘individualisation thesis’, I demonstrate how local models of person and agency are indispensible to a fuller understanding of social life. Considering the important role ritual speech habits (largely trained in de‐individuating feasting) continue to play in socialising actors to economic institutions and power relationships more generally, individuation in China today remains a largely nominal and aspirational, if symbolically potent and potentially transformative, project.     

基于专利分析的肿瘤基因PCR诊断技术研究

肿瘤目前成为人类健康和生命的重要危胁,肿瘤基因诊断是对肿瘤的各种原癌基因、抑癌基因进行检测,聚合酶链反应(polymerase chain reaction,PCR)技术是目前临床基因诊断应用最广泛的诊断技术,具有普及率高、特异性好、简便快捷等特点。肿瘤基因PCR诊断技术可以用于已知基因突变的检测,快速了解突变状态,有效制定治疗方案,为肿瘤患者带来福音。本研究主要基于专利数据,对肿瘤基因PCR诊断技术进行分析,探讨了全球与中国在肿瘤基因PCR诊断技术领域的发展现状与趋势。在Innography数据库共检索到PCR技术相关专利16,939件,专利家族6,285件。在肿瘤基因PCR诊断技术领域中,荧光定量PCR技术占比较大,约占肿瘤基因PCR诊断技术总量的三分之一。从技术技术生命周期来看,肿瘤基因PCR诊断技术目前仍处在高速发展阶段。美国是肿瘤基因PCR诊断技术的发展领先国家。该技术的主要来源国为美国,全球42.09%的专利来自美国,同时美国也是同族专利的主要分布地区。在肿瘤基因PCR诊断技术领域,排名前15位的顶尖机构中,来自美国的机构有7所。中国在肿瘤基因PCR诊断技术领域起步较晚,但发展迅速,在该技术领域申请的专利数量仅次于美国。中国申请的肿瘤基因PCR诊断技术的专利绝大多数都只在中国进行专利保护,并没有布局全球市场的意愿。     

Gendering unemployment in postsocialist Germany: ‘what I do is work,even if it's not paid’

This article uses feminist theories of the family to examine women's unemployment in the early years of German postsocialism. It is based on qualitative fieldwork, including 80 in-depth interviews, conducted in three cities in the formerly socialist region of Germany. In this article, three cases of couples coping with a wife's unemployment are analyzed in terms of micro-processes of negotiating work-family balance, redefining employment and domesticity, and reconstructing gendered identities. The central argument is that a couple's stance on emerging market institutions shaped how they re-negotiated their gender division of labor during postsocialism.     

Saving the endangered Mary River turtle: Enhancing conservation outcomes through community engagement

Australian biodiversity is facing an extinction crisis; yet, government spending on conservation is wholly inadequate. The involvement of local communities in fundraising, direct actions, and habitat restoration is becoming vital in the fate of threatened species. Here, we review the research outputs and impact generated from 22 years of conservation-driven collaboration between researchers and a local community focused on saving the endangered Mary River turtle (Elusor macrurus). The study found that this collaboration generated a significant body of research that advanced the ecological knowledge of the species and ensured the findings were being applied towards the conservation of the turtle, locally and nationally. While the national listing status of E. macrurus as endangered has not changed over the past 22 years, the knowledge gained about the turtle's biology and its use to better advise development and water resources in the catchment suggests that the species' future is brighter than when it was first discovered in 1994. This review demonstrates the potential of local communities in driving and supporting conservation initiatives and provides a blueprint for scientific endeavours that inform adaptive community conservation programmes for threatened species.     

基于文献计量分析的生态系统服务研究现状及热点

生态系统服务是生态学研究的核心和热点议题。近年来,各国和各相关机构对生态系统服务的研究力度不断加大。基于SCI-E和CNKI数据库,利用文献计量方法,分析了国内外生态系统服务研究的发展特征和变化趋势。研究结果表明:(1)国内外生态系统服务研究的发文量不断增加,发展态势良好。(2)发达国家是生态系统服务领域的主要研究力量,美国占据绝对领先地位;美国的加利福尼亚大学是主要研究机构;总体来看,国家和机构间的合作正在不断增强。(3)当前该领域的8类研究热点分别是生态系统服务机理研究,保护管理及可持续性、生物多样性、脆弱性、土地利用及景观变化、评估与模型、气候变化、政策与决策分析。从各个时期国内外研究热点整体分布情况来看,国际更侧重于生态系统服务及生态系统服务与人类福祉的依存关系的研究,国内则更加关注生态系统服务评估。(4)近年来中国在生态系统服务研究领域的国际地位有所提升,科研产出量显著增加,累积发文量居世界第5位,中国科学院是全球主要研究机构之一,但论文被引频次相对偏低,国际合作亟待加强和提升。