Water stress-induced xylem hydraulic failure is a causal factor of tree mortality in beech and poplar

Background and Aims

Extreme water stress episodes induce tree mortality, but the physiological mechanisms causing tree death are still poorly understood. This study tests the hypothesis that a potted tree''s ability to survive extreme monotonic water stress is determined by the cavitation resistance of its xylem tissue.

Methods

Two species were selected with contrasting cavitation resistance (beech and poplar), and potted juvenile trees were exposed to a range of water stresses, causing up to 100 % plant death.

Key Results

The lethal dose of water stress, defined as the xylem pressure inducing 50 % mortality, differed sharply across species (1·75 and 4·5 MPa in poplar and beech, respectively). However, the relationships between tree mortality and the degree of cavitation in the stems were similar, with mortality occurring suddenly when >90 % cavitation had occurred.

Conclusions

Overall, the results suggest that cavitation resistance is a causal factor of tree mortality under extreme drought conditions.     

树锦鸡儿、柠条锦鸡儿、小叶锦鸡儿和鹰嘴豆干旱适应能力比较

对1年生豆科作物鹰嘴豆Rupali品种和Almaz品种以及多年生植物树锦鸡儿、柠条锦鸡儿和小叶锦鸡儿叶相对含水量和叶水势对逐渐干旱胁迫的响应进行了分析,比较了两类植物的干旱适应能力。结果表明鹰嘴豆叶相对含水量随叶水势的下降线性下降,树锦鸡儿、柠条锦鸡儿和小叶锦鸡儿叶相对含水量在叶水势分别下降到-2.4MPa、-2.5MPa和-1.5 MPa之前没有下降,之后随水势的下降线性下降。树锦鸡儿、柠条锦鸡儿和小叶锦鸡儿这种叶相对含水量下降的滞后性表明该类植物叶具有较硬而弹性较差的细胞壁,使得植物在干旱胁迫下叶具有良好的保水能力。鹰嘴豆叶具有的最低水势为-4.5MPa,对应的土壤相对含水量为14％,锦鸡儿植物叶具有的最低水势可达-6.7MPa,对应的土壤相对含水量为6％,说明锦鸡儿植物比鹰嘴豆具有更好的干旱适应能力,这种能力可能取决于锦鸡儿植物体内大量渗透调节物质的累积。     

Yield-loss Models for Tobacco Infected with Meloidogyne incognita as Affected by Soil Moisture

Yield-loss models were developed for tobacco infected with Meloidogyne incognita grown in microplots under various irrigation regimes. The rate of relative yield loss per initial nematode density (Pi), where relative yield is a proportion of the value of the harvested leaves in uninfected plants with the same irrigation treatment, was greater under conditions of water stress or with high irrigation than at an intermediate level of soil moisture. The maximum rate of plant growth per degree-day (base 10 C) was reduced as nematode Pi increased when plots contained adequate water. When plants were under water stress, increasing Pi did not luther reduce the maximum rate of plant growth (water stress was the limiting factor). Cumulative soil matric potential values were calculated to describe the relationship between available water in the soil (matric potential) due to the irrigation treatments and subsequent plant growth.     

Clonal variation of tea [Camellia sinensis (L.) O. Kuntze] in countering water deficiency

Various clones of tea [Camellia sinensis (L.) O. Kuntze] such as TTL-1, TTL-2, TTL-4, TTL-5, TTL-6, UPASI-2 and UPASI-3 planted in the field were subjected to soil moisture stress conditions by withholding irrigation. A control set of the same clones were maintained by watering regularly. The soil water content of the irrigated and non irrigated plants was monitored through the soil moisture status. The extent of effect of drought on tea plants were monitored through various physiological parameters such as shoot weight, leaf water potential, chlorophyll and carotenoid content, chlorophyll fluorescence (Fv/Fm), net photosynthetic rate, transpiration rate, stomatal conductance and biochemical parameters such as extent of proline accumulation and free radical generation. These parameters were studied on the 30 d of non irrigation and on the 5 d during recovery from drought. The plants recovered when re-irrigated after 30 d of non-irrigation, which suggests that permanent wilting did not occur due to non-irrigation up to 30 d. On the 30 d of non-irrigation the clones TTL-1, TTL-6 and UPASI-2 showed lesser reduction of shoot weight, leaf water potential, chlorophyll fluorescence, photosynthetic rate, transpiration rate and stomatal conductance and increased proline and lesser lipid peroxidation as compared to the other clones. From these results it can be concluded that the clones TTL-1, TTL-6 and UPASI-2 are comparatively more drought tolerant than the clones TTL-2, TTL-4, TTL-5 and UPASI-3.     

Assessing the regulation of leaf redox status under water stress conditions in Arabidopsis thaliana: Col-0 ecotype (wild-type and vtc-2), expressing mitochondrial and cytosolic roGFP1

Using Arabidopsis plants Col-0 and vtc2 transformed with a redox sensitive green fluorescent protein, (c-roGFP) and (m-roGFP), we investigated the effects of a progressive water stress and re-watering on the redox status of the cytosol and the mitochondria. Our results establish that water stress affects redox status differently in these two compartments, depending on phenotype and leaf age, furthermore we conclude that ascorbate plays a pivotal role in mediating redox status homeostasis and that Col-0 Arabidopsis subjected to water stress increase the synthesis of ascorbate suggesting that ascorbate may play a role in buffering changes in redox status in the mitochondria and the cytosol, with the presumed buffering capacity of ascorbate being more noticeable in young compared with mature leaves. Re-watering of water-stressed plants was paralleled by a return of both the redox status and ascorbate to the levels of well-watered plants. In contrast to the effects of water stress on ascorbate levels, there were no significant changes in the levels of glutathione, thereby suggesting that the regeneration and increase in ascorbate in water-stressed plants may occur by other processes in addition to the regeneration of ascorbate via the glutathione. Under water stress in vtc2 lines it was observed stronger differences in redox status in relation to leaf age, than due to water stress conditions compared with Col-0 plants. In the vtc2 an increase in DHA was observed in water-stressed plants. Furthermore, this work confirms the accuracy and sensitivity of the roGFP1 biosensor as a reporter for variations in water stress-associated changes in redox potentials.     

Survey of Plant Drought-Resistance Promoting Bacteria from Populus euphratica Tree Living in Arid Area

Two hundred and thirty-two bacterial strains were isolated from the rhizospheric soil of Populus euphratica which is the dominant tree living in extreme arid regions in northwest China. Some strains with plant growth-promoting bacteria related metabolic characteristics were able to promote drought resistance in plants after inoculation. Ten strains with the greatest effects increased the dry weight of wheat shoots from 0.5 to 34.4 %, and the surface area of the root systems from 12.56 to 212.17 % compared to the control after drought treatment whereas no obvious promoting effect was observed in normal water conditions. These 10 strains were identified to be of the genera Pseudomonas, Bacillus, Stenotrophomonas and Serratia by 16S rRNA (rrs) gene sequence alignment. Among these strains, Serratia sp. 1-9 and Pseudomonas sp. 5-23 were the two most effective strains. Both of them produced auxin and the production increased significantly when cultured under simulated drought conditions which are inferred to be the most plausible mechanism for their plant growth-promoting effect under drought stress.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (doi:10.1007/s12088-014-0479-3) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.     

The interplay of stress and mowing disturbance for the intensity and importance of plant interactions in dry calcareous grasslands

Background and Aims There is still debate regarding the direction and strength of plant interactions under intermediate to high levels of stress. Furthermore, little is known on how disturbance may interact with physical stress in unproductive environments, although recent theory and models have shown that this interplay may induce a collapse of plant interactions and diversity. The few studies assessing such questions have considered the intensity of biotic interactions but not their importance, although this latter concept has been shown to be very useful for understanding the role of interactions in plant communities. The objective of this study was to assess the interplay between stress and disturbance for plant interactions in dry calcareous grasslands. Methods A field experiment was set up in the Dordogne, southern France, where the importance and intensity of biotic interactions undergone by four species were measured along a water stress gradient, and with and without mowing disturbance. Key Results The importance and intensity of interactions varied in a very similar way along treatments. Under undisturbed conditions, plant interactions switched from competition to neutral with increasing water stress for three of the four species, whereas the fourth species was not subject to any significant biotic interaction along the gradient. Responses to disturbance were more species-specific; for two species, competition disappeared with mowing in the wettest conditions, whereas for the two other species, competition switched to facilitation with mowing. Finally, there were no significant interactions for any species in the disturbed and driest conditions. Conclusions At very high levels of stress, plant performances become too weak to allow either competition or facilitation and disturbance may accelerate the collapse of interactions in dry conditions. The results suggest that the importance and direction of interactions are more likely to be positively related in stressful environments.     

Effect of water stress by Polyethylene Glycol 8000 and Sodium Chloride on germination of Ephedra alata Decne seeds

Ephedra alata Decne is a perennial shrub and it is a very effective sand-binder. In Saudi Arabia, the species is associated with sand dunes formation, especially the mobile, non-saline and low moisture content ones. Its geographical distribution in Saudi Arabia includes the Northern, Eastern and Central regions. The aims of this study were to determine the effects of temperature, water potential and Sodium Chloride on germination of E. alata. Seeds were collected from King Khalid Centre of Wildlife Research and Development at Thumama (80 km north east of Riyadh), Saudi Arabia. Seeds were germinated at four alternating temperature regimes (8/22; 9/23; 13/27 and 18/35 °C). Seeds were also germinated under stress of aqueous Polyethylene Glycol (PEG) solutions mixed to create water potentials of 0; −0.3; −0.6; −1.2 and −1.5 MPa. Seed were also germinated in Sodium Chloride solutions of 0, 0.05, 0.1, 0.2 and 0.3 mol l⁻¹. Optimum germination was attained at 13/28 °C that corresponds to temperatures prevailing during spring time. Seeds germinated in Polyethylene Glycol solutions exhibited significantly lower germination than control especially when water potential fell below −0.3 MPa. Germination was also negatively affected by 0.1 mol l⁻¹ Sodium Chloride solution or above. Results indicated that the germination temperature responses of the nondormant seeds synchronize the event of germination with the season when environmental conditions are more favorable for subsequent growth and seedling establishment. Germination was also sensitive to both water potential and salinity.     

Biological seed priming mitigates the effects of water stress in sunflower seedlings

The sunflower (Helianthus annuus L. cv. PAC 36) seedlings were inoculated with plant growth promoting rhizobacteria (PGPR), viz. Azotobacter chroococcum (A+), Bacillus polymyxa (B+), separately and in combination of the two (AB+). Relative water content and seedling growth were maximum in AB+ seedlings under control. Water stress significantly decreased the RWC, growth and dry mass of non-inoculated seedlings. However, inoculated seedlings maintained higher growth even under water stress. Pigments and protein contents decreased under water stress, but higher amount of the same was observed in stressed AB+ seedlings. Enhanced activity of nitrate reductase was recorded in AB+ seedlings with maximum in control. Water stress significantly decreased the nitrate reductase activity. A significant increase in the activity of superoxide dismutase (SOD) in leaves was recorded under water stress except in B+ with maximum increase in non-inoculated seedlings. Catalase (CAT) activity decreased in stressed non-inoculated seedlings while increased in the leaves of A+ and AB+ seedlings. Almost similar trends were recorded for both leaves and cotyledons. PGPR improved the water status in stressed seedlings and thereby physiological and biochemical parameters and thus ameliorated the severe effects of water stress.     

Effect of Simultaneous Water Deficit Stress and Meloidogyne incognita Infection on Cotton Yield and Fiber Quality

Both water deficit stress and Meloidogyne incognita infection can reduce cotton growth and yield, and drought can affect fiber quality, but the effect of nematodes on fiber quality is not well documented. To determine whether nematode parasitism affects fiber quality and whether the combined effects of nematode and drought stress on yield and quality are additive (independent effects), synergistic, or antagonistic, we conducted a study for 7 yr in a field infested with M. incognita. A split-plot design was used with the main plot factor as one of three irrigation treatments (low [nonirrigated], moderate irrigation, and high irrigation [water-replete]) and the subplot factor as 0 or 56 l/ha 1,3-dichloropropene. We prevented water deficit stress in plots designated as water-replete by supplementing rainfall with irrigation. Plots receiving moderate irrigation received half the water applied to the water-replete treatment. The severity of root galling was greater in nonfumigated plots and in plots receiving the least irrigation, but the amount of irrigation did not influence the effect of fumigation on root galling (no irrigation × fumigation interaction). The weights of lint and seed harvested were reduced in nonfumigated plots and also decreased as the level of irrigation decreased, but fumigation did not influence the effect of irrigation. Nematodes affected fiber quality by increasing micronaire readings but typically had little or no effect on percent lint, fiber length (measured by HVI), uniformity, strength, elongation, length (based on weight or number measured by AFIS), upper quartile length, or short fiber content (based on weight or number). Micronaire also was increased by water deficit stress, but the effects from nematodes and water stress were independent. We conclude that the detrimental effects caused to cotton yield and quality by nematode parasitism and water deficit stress are independent and therefore additive.     

Interaction of Meloidogyne incognita and Water Stress in Two Cotton Cultivars

A series of controlled-environment experiments were conducted to elucidate the effects of Meloidogyne incognita on host physiology and plant-water relations of two cotton (Gossypium hirsutum) cultivars that differed in their susceptibility to nematode infection. Inoculation of M. incognita-resistant cultivar Auburn 634 did not affect growth, stomatal resistance, or components of plant-water potential relative to uninoculated controls. However, nematode infection of the susceptible cultivar Stoneville 506 greatly suppressed water flow through intact roots. This inhibition exceeded 28% on a root-length basis and was similar to that observed as a consequence of severe water stress in a high evaporative demand environment. Nematodes did not affect the components of leaf water potential, stomatal resistance, transpiration, or leaf temperature. However, these factors were affected by the interaction of M. incognita and water stress. Our results indicate that M. incognita infection may alter host-plant water balance and may be a significant factor in early-season stress on cotton seedlings.     

Effects of prolonged drought on the anatomy of sun and shade needles in young Norway spruce trees

Predicted increases in the frequency and duration of drought are expected to negatively affect tree vitality, but we know little about how water shortage will influence needle anatomy and thereby the trees’ photosynthetic and hydraulic capacity. In this study, we evaluated anatomical changes in sun and shade needles of 20‐year‐old Norway spruce trees exposed to artificial drought stress. Canopy position was found to be important for needle structure, as sun needles had significantly higher values than shade needles for all anatomical traits (i.e., cross‐sectional needle area, number of tracheids in needle, needle hydraulic conductivity, and tracheid lumen area), except proportion of xylem area per cross‐sectional needle area. In sun needles, drought reduced all trait values by 10–40%, whereas in shade needles, only tracheid maximum diameter was reduced by drought. Due to the relatively weaker response of shade needles than sun needles in drought‐stressed trees, the difference between the two needle types was reduced by 25% in the drought‐stressed trees compared to the control trees. The observed changes in needle anatomy provide new understanding of how Norway spruce adapts to drought stress and may improve predictions of how forests will respond to global climate change.     

Influence of Temperature on Development of Pine Wilt in Scots Pine

The effect of temperature on pine wilt development in Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris) was examined in three experiments. Container-grown pines (4-6 years old) inoculated with 1,500 Bursaphelenchus xylophilus were incubated at constant temperatures in growth chamber for 8 weeks, then at a temperature range of 15-30 C in a greenhouse for 10-12 weeks. Nematode infection was greater, tree mortality was higher, and disease incubation was shorter at 32 and 30 C than at 25, 23, 18, and 11 C. Foliar symptoms developed more rapidly and uniformly at higher temperatures. Ninety-five percent of tree deaths at 32 and 30 C and 88% at 25 and 23 C occurred within the 8-week exposure to constant temperatures. Mortality at 18, 16, and 11 C occurred only after transfer to the greenhouse. Results indicate that pine wilt incidence is directly related and disease incubation period is inversely related to temperature and that high-temperature stress predisposes Scots pine to lethal infection by B. xylophilus.     

Nematode Electrocution

The effects of electric shock on Panagrellus redivivus adults and larvae and Meloidogyne incognita acrita larvae were studied. The nematodes were placed in tap water between two stainless steel electrodes, spaced 2 mm apart and cemented to a glass slide. Electric potentials of 1, 5, 10, 15, 20, 30, and 60 vdc/mm and vac/mm were applied for periods of 1 sec to 5 rain at 0.05 to 77 ma. The results demonstrated that ac or dc electric shocks as low as 5 v/mm for larvae and 10 v/mm for adults can be lethal. Some larvae and eggs within the body of P. redivivus females were not affected at 600 v/ram. Potentials of 20 and 60 vdc/mm for 2-sec stimulated hatch of Meloidogyne eggs.     

Germination responses to temperature and water potential in Jatropha curcas seeds: a hydrotime model explains the difference between dormancy expression and dormancy induction at different incubation temperatures

Background and Aims

Jatropha curcas is a drought-resistant tree whose seeds are a good source of oil that can be used for producing biodiesel. A successful crop establishment depends on a rapid and uniform germination of the seed. In this work we aimed to characterize the responses of J. curcas seeds to temperature and water availability, using thermal time and hydrotime analysis,

Methods

Thermal and hydrotime analysis was performed on germination data obtained from the incubation of seeds at different temperatures and at different water potentials.

Key Results

Base and optimum temperatures were 14·4 and 30 °C, respectively. Approximately 20 % of the seed population displayed absolute dormancy and part of it displayed relative dormancy which was progressively expressed in further fractions when incubation temperatures departed from 25 °C. The thermal time model, but not the hydrotime model, failed to describe adequately final germination percentages at temperatures other than 25 °C. The hydrotime constant, θ_H, was reduced when the incubation temperature was increased up to 30 °C, the base water potential for 50 % germination,Ψ_b(50), was less negative at 20 and 30 °C than at 25 °C, indicating either expression or induction of dormancy. At 20 °C this less negative Ψ_b(50) explained satisfactorily the germination curves obtained at all water potentials, while at 30 °C it had to be corrected towards even less negative values to match observed curves at water potentials below 0. Hence, Ψ_b(50) appeared to have been further displaced to less negative values as exposure to 30 °C was prolonged by osmoticum. These results suggest expression of dormancy at 20 °C and induction of secondary dormancy above 25 °C. This was confirmed by an experiment showing that inhibition of germination imposed by temperatures higher than 30 °C, but not that imposed at 20 °C, is a permanent effect.

Conclusions

This study revealed (a) the extremely narrow thermal range within which dormancy problems (either through expression or induction of dormancy) may not be encountered; and (b) the high sensitivity displayed by these seeds to water shortage. In addition, this work is the first one in which temperature effects on dormancy expression could be discriminated from those on dormancy induction using a hydrotime analysis.     

Abscisic acid root and leaf concentration in relation to biomass partitioning in salinized tomato plants

Salinization is one of the most important causes of crop productivity reduction in many areas of the world. Mechanisms that control leaf growth and shoot development under the osmotic phase of salinity are still obscure, and opinions differ regarding the Abscisic acid (ABA) role in regulation of biomass allocation under salt stress. ABA concentration in roots and leaves was analyzed in a genotype of processing tomato under two increasing levels of salinity stress for five weeks: 100 mM NaCl (S10) and 150 mM NaCl (S15), to study the effect of ABA changes on leaf gas exchange and dry matter partitioning of this crop under salinity conditions. In S15, salinization decreased dry matter by 78% and induced significant increases of Na⁺ and Cl⁻ in both leaves and roots. Dry matter allocated in different parts of plant was significantly different in salt-stressed treatments, as salinization increased root/shoot ratio 2-fold in S15 and 3-fold in S15 compared to the control. Total leaf water potential (Ψ_w) decreased from an average value of approximately −1.0 MPa, measured on control plants and S10, to −1.17 MPa in S15. In S15, photosynthesis was reduced by 23% and stomatal conductance decreased by 61%. Moreover, salinity induced ABA accumulation both in tomato leaves and roots of the more stressed treatment (S15), where ABA level was higher in roots than in leaves (550 and 312 ng g⁻¹ fresh weight, respectively). Our results suggest that the dynamics of ABA and ion accumulation in tomato leaves significantly affected both growth and gas exchange-related parameters in tomato. In particular, ABA appeared to be involved in the tomato salinity response and could play an important role in dry matter partitioning between roots and shoots of tomato plants subjected to salt stress.     

不同土壤水分状况对杨树、沙棘水分关系及生长的影响

在盆栽条件下对杨树、沙棘进行了3种土壤水分处理,研究结果表明：沙棘的叶含水率在同一土壤水分下比杨树高、而水势低,说明沙棘叶的抗旱保水能力强于杨树;沙棘单叶的光合速率能够长时间维持在较高的水平,蒸腾速率却并非如此。杨树无论在生长初期,还是生长中期其单叶WUE均高于沙棘。以新生枝生物量／耗水总量计算的整体WUE在3种土壤水分条件下,杨树的WUE分别是沙棘的2．4倍、2．3倍、2倍,其差异达极显著水平,但在3种土壤水分条件下2个树种都以中度亏缺下的水分利用率最高。整个生长季节处在严重干旱下的杨树和沙棘的生长均受到显著影响,沙棘生长受干旱影响程度小于杨树,从整个生长趋势上看杨树适宜于良好水分下的生长,沙棘在适宜水分和中度亏缺下均可良好生长。     

A study of the current-voltage relationships of electrogenetic active and passive membrane elements in riccia fluitans

Potassium- and proton-dependent membrane potential, conductance, and current-voltage characteristics (I–V curves) have been measured on rhizoid cells of the liverwort Riccia fluitans. The potential difference (E_m) measured with microelectrodes across plasmalemma and tonoplast is depolarized to the potassium-sensitive diffusion potential (E_D) in the presence of 1 mM NaCN, 1 mM NaN₃, or at temperatures below 6°C. Whereas the temperature change from 25°C to 5°C decreases the membrane conductance (g_m) from 0.71 to 0.43 S ? m^?2, 1 mM NaCN increases g_m by about 25%. The membrane displays potassium-controlled rectification which gradually disappears at temperatures below 5°C. The potassium pathway can be described by an equivalent circuit of a diode and an ohmic resistor in parallel. In the potential interval of E_D ± 100 mV the measured I-V curves roughly fit the theoretical curves obtained from a modified diode equation. ⁸⁶Rb⁺(K⁺)-influx is voltage sensitive: In the presence of 1 mM NaCN, ⁸⁶Rb⁺-influx follows a hyperbolic function corresponding to a low conductance at low [K⁺]_o and high conductance at high [K⁺]_o. On the contrary ⁸⁶Rb⁺-influx is linear with [K⁺]_o when pump activity is normal. It is believed that there are two K⁺-transport pathways in the Riccia membrane, one of which is assigned to the low conductance (0.2 S · m^?2), the other to a temperature-dependent facilitated diffusion system with a higher conductance (7.7 S · m^?2). The electrogenic pump essentially acts as a current source and consumes about 39% of the cellular ATP-turnover. In the presence of 30 μM CCCP the saturation current of 0.1 A · m^?2 is doubled to about 0.2 A · m^?2, and the electromotive force of ?360 mV switches to ?250 mV. It is suggested that this may be due to a change in stoichiometry from one to two transported charges per ATP hydrolyzed.