Comparison of Four Methods Calculating the Seasonal Pattern of Plant Growth Efficiency of a Kiwifruit Berry

Four methods of determining the substrate requirements for synthesisof a kiwifruit [Actinidia deliciosa (A. Chev.) C. F. Liang etA. R. Ferguson var. deliciosa cv. Hayward] berry were comparedusing data derived from common kiwifruit berry samples collectedfrom anthesis to fruit maturity. The four methods were basedon fruit proximal analysis, elemental analysis, heats of combustion,or tissue carbon content. All methods gave similar patternsof seasonal costs and values of final cost to the plant (mean1.21 g glucose g^–1 season^–1) but there was lessagreement for growth respiration (mean 0.147 g glucose g^–1season^–1). This is the first time that a continuous recordof growth cost over the course of development has been presented,and the trends in seasonal cost reflect the uptake into andsynthesis of the different biochemical constituents in the fruit.The differences between the results of each method reflect theunderlying assumptions used in their development. It appearsfrom this work that the method of McDermitt and Loomis (1981),utilizing elemental analyses, is most preferred. Actinidia deliciosa (A. Chev.) C. F. Liang et A. R. Ferguson var deliciosa cv Haywood, kiwifruit, true growth yield, plant growth efficiency, production value, glucose value, bioenergetic cost     

Estimating the Bioenergetic Cost of a Developing Kiwifruit Berry and its Growth and Maintenance Respiration Components

A response surface was developed by regression analysis to quantifythe seasonal respiratory losses by a kiwifruit [Actinidia deliciosa(A. Chev.) C. F. Liang et A. R. Ferguson var. deliciosa cv.Hayward] berry growing in Fresno, CA. The equation of the surfacewas LNRESP = 1·622 + 0·0697 x TEMP –0·0472x DAY + 0·000165 x DAYSQ, where LNRESP is the naturallogarithm of the respiration rate (nmol CO₂ g d. wt^–1s^–1), TEMP is fruit temperature (°C), DAY is the numberof days after flowering, and DAYSQ is the square of the numberof days after flowering. Respiratory losses for a fruit witha final dry mass of 18·5 g were calculated to be 5·57and 5·92 g glucose per fruit per season in 1985 and 1986,respectively. Maintenance respiration was estimated to be 2·84and 3·19 g glucose per fruit per season for 1985 and1986, respectively. The total calculated bioenergetic cost ofkiwifruit berry growth and respiration was 25·25 and25·60 g glucose per fruit per season for 1985 and 1986,respectively. Respiratory losses, expressed as a proportionof the total carbohydrate required for fruit growth, were significant(mean 22·6%). The cost of fruit growth was estimatedto be very similar for two cooler sites (Davis and Watsonville)but estimates of maintenance respiration based on Fresno fruitrespiration data were unrealistically low for the Watsonvillesite. Actinidia deliciosa (A. Chev.) C. F. Liang et A. R. Ferguson var. deliciosa cv. Hayward, kiwifruit, growth respiration, maintenance respiration, bioenergetic costs, model     

Effects of Water Stress on Fruit Quality Attributes of Kiwifruit

Four-year-old kiwifruit vines (Actinidia deliciosa(A. Chev.)C. F. Liang et A. R. Ferguson var.deliciosacv. Hayward) werestudied to determine response of the plant and effects on fruitquality when irrigation water was withheld either early or latein the growing season. The greatest effect on fruit growth occurredwhen water was withheld early in the season. Harvest weightof fruit from early-stressed vines was approx. 25% less thanthe weight of fruit on control vines. Early season water stressresulted in a transient increase in concentrations of solublecarbohydrates in both leaves and fruit. This was accompaniedby a reduction in stomatal conductance of the leaves. Starchlevels in leaves but not fruit were reduced by both stress treatments.Concentrations of sucrose at harvest in fruit from vines stressedlate in the season were markedly higher than in other fruit,and softness of the fruit was unaffected. These differenceswere maintained through the 12 weeks in cool storage after harvest.Withholding irrigation water to kiwifruit vines late in theseason may prove a useful management tool to manipulate somequality attributes of the fruit.Copyright 1998 Annals of BotanyCompany Kiwifruit;Actinidia deliciosa; water stress; fruit quality; soluble solids.     

Sensitivity of Floral Shoot Growth, Fruit Set and Early Fruit Size inActinidia deliciosato Local Carbon Supply

The sensitivity of pre-anthesis shoot growth, fruit set andearly fruit size in kiwifruit [Actinidia deliciosa(A. Chev.)C. F. Liang et A. R. Ferguson] to cane girdling and defoliationtreatments was tested, and the results discussed in terms ofshoot carbon balance. The nature and degree of responses obtainedwas dependent on the time of application. When treatments wereapplied soon after budbreak, defoliation initially reduced growth,whereas increasingly severe girdling treatments induced responsesprogressing from stimulation to severe impairment of growthand photosynthetic capability. Similar treatments imposed laterin shoot development produced qualitatively different results.The development of floral tissues on the shoot is shown to besensitive to shoot carbon status during a period close to anthesis,and the significance of this result in relation to fruit heterogeneityat maturity is discussed.Copyright 1998 Annals of Botany Company Actinidia deliciosa, kiwifruit, shoot growth, fruit variability, fruit set, reserves.     

Shoot Axillary Bud Morphogenesis in Kiwifruit (Actinidia deliciosa)

The annual cycle of kiwifruit [Actinidia deliciosa(A. Chev.)C. F. Liang et A. R. Ferguson var.deliciosacv. Hayward] shootaxillary bud (first-order axillary bud, FOAB) morphogenesisis described. FOABs developed quickly with the majority of budscales and leaf primordia present approx. 125 d after budbreak(dab). Mature FOABs had, on average, 23.2 bud scales and leafprimordia. Most second-order axillary structures were also presentapprox. 125 dab. During the growing season, the second-orderstructures developed into second-order axillary buds (SOABs)or remained as simple, dome-shaped meristems (SDSMs). At maturity,nearly all FOABs had four SOABs and, on average, 12.4 SDSMs.Most SDSMs were fused to the subtending leaf primordia, butsome SDSMs developed so that they were ‘free’ fromthe subtending leaf primordia. Third-order axillary meristems(third-order SDSMs) were observed in the axils of most SOABs,and, on average, there were 20.6 per FOAB. Our observationson the development of second-order axillary structures are consistentwith evocation in kiwifruit occurring earlier than the generally-acceptedtime of late summer. Actinidia deliciosa; bud morphogenesis; development; flowering; evocation     

Seasonal Variation of Nitrogenous Compounds in Components of the Kiwifruit Vine

Free amino acids in 6-year-old kiwifruit vines [Actinidia deliciosa(A. Chev.) C. F. Liang et A. R. Ferguson] were measured overthe course of 1 year using components obtained from whole-vineharvests. Tissues examined from the perennial structure consistedof the wood and cortex of structural roots, wood and bark ofstem, leader and 1-year-old fruiting canes. Free acids in theannual growth (fine roots, flowers, fruit, leaves and non-fruitingshoots) were also measured. The range of amino acids extracted indicated that kiwifruitconforms to a conventional pattern of nitrogen metabolism. Acidspresent in greatest concentration depended on tissue type andsampling time. In perennial components and fine roots, arginineand glutamine were the predominant species, followed by gamma-aminobutyrate,aspartate, glutamate, alanine and valine. Generally, maximumconcentrations of all free acids were measured in a 10-weekperiod around budbreak. These same acids, plus asparagine, serineand threonine, were also prevalent in annual growth. In leaves,flowers and non-fruiting shoots, concentrations were greatestin the young tissue and declined with age. By contrast, concentrationsof arginine, asparagine and glutamine in fruit peaked approximately10 weeks after anthesis, subsequent to the cell division phaseof growth. During the year, free arginine averaged 44, 48 and 58 % of thetotal N in the fine roots, and the cortex and wood of structuralroots, respectively (the quantity of total N and amino-N inother components of the structural framework was much less thanthat in root tissue). Arginine was the principal N-containingspecies measured in xylem sap vacuum-extracted from 1-year-oldcanes over winter. During the period of vegetative growth, however,glutamine and nitrate were the principal N-transport forms present.The study highlights the importance of the fine root systemas the primary location of nitrogenous reserves in this plantand identifies arginine as the dominant N-storage form. Actinidia deliciosa (A. Chev.) C. F. Liang et A. R. Ferguson, amino acid composition, kiwifruit, nitrogen, whole-plant harvesting     

Accumulation of myo -Inositol in Actinidia Seedlings Subjected to Salt Stress

Seedlings of kiwifruit (Actinidia deliciosa (A. Chev.) C. F.Liang et A. R. Ferguson vardeliciosa ) and A. arguta (Sieb.et Zucc.) Planch. ex Miq. grown in hydroponic nutrient solutionswith elevated salt (MgSO₄and KCl) concentrations showed visiblesigns of stress at salt concentrations of 50 m M and above.The polyol myo -inositol accumulated in leaf tissue when thesalt was added to 15 m M or more, with increases being similarin the two species. The increase in concentration of myo -inositolwas approximately linear with rising salt. At any given saltconcentration an increase in myo -inositol was linear with timefrom application of salt.myo -Inositol concentrations increasedwithin the first 24 h of salt treatment, and declined againas quickly once the stress was removed. Sucrose also increasedwith salt stress, accumulating only once plants showed physicalsigns of stress. Accumulation of myo -inositol was negativelycorrelated to fructose and glucose. Copyright 1999 Annals ofBotany Company Actinidia arguta, Actinidia deliciosa, kiwifruit, leaf tissue, myo -inositol, salt stress, sucrose.     

Endo- and Exochitinase Activity in Kiwifruit Infected with Botrytis cinerea

Endo- and exochitinase activities were determined in autoclaved leaves, live leaves, and fruit of kiwifruit (Actinidia deliciosa var. deliciosa cv. Hayward [A. Chev.]Liang and Ferguson) following infection with Botrytis cinerea (Pers.). Appreciable endochitinase activity was found in healthy and diseased leaves and fruit at harvest and after cool-storage, but was absent in plant tissue killed by autoclaving. Later harvested fruit produced more endochitinase activity in storage than did early harvested fruit. Exochitinase activity was only associated with diseased tissue, and was present in diseased autoclaved leaves. The results suggest that endochitinase activity originates from the plant whilst exochitinase is associated with the pathogen. The significance of these findings is discussed.     

Kiwifruit micropropagation through callus shoot-bud induction

Summary A profitable system for the establishment of morphogenic callus cultures and indirect shoot induction and development was accomplished from nodal shoot segments obtained from adult and micropropagated plants of kiwifruit (Actinidia deliciosa [Chev.] Liang and Ferguson, var.deliciosa) cv. “Hayward”. The effects of medium composition, cytokinin levels, dilution of salts, and type of callus derived from the cultured primary explants were studied. Medium composition as well as type of callus greatly affected organogenic responses.     

中华猕猴桃硬毛变种学名订正

<正> 我们最近仔细研读了法国学者A.Chevalier在1940年和1941年连续发表的两篇文章,确认他在头篇文章中描述的Aetinidia latifolia Merr. var. deliciosa A. Chev. 和第二篇文章中改为Actinidia chinensis Planch.var. deliciosa A. Chev.的植物与梁畴芬1975年发表的Actinidia chinensis Planch. var. hispida C. F. Liang为同一植物。根据国际植物命名法规优先律,应承认A.Chevalier发表的名称为正名。 我们又研究了这一种植物与Actinidia chinensis Planch.相区别的特征,认为这种猕猴桃应被视为一个独立的物种。现特把它和它的两个变型作出如下的学名订正处理。     

Changes in Cell Wall Composition and Water-soluble Polysaccharides During Kiwifruit Development

Changes in both cell wall and water-soluble polysaccharide compositionduring the growth of kiwifruits [Actinidia deliciosa (A. chev.) C. F. Liang and A. R. Ferguson var. deliciosa ‘Hayward’]were investigated. Cellulose was the major wall polysaccharide,with galactose and uronics the main non-cellulosic sugars. Muchsolubilization of cell wall pectic polysaccharides was detected.While wall-galactose solubilization started 3 months after anthesis,polyuronide degradation did not start until the fifth month,1 month prior to the harvest date. Parallel to these processes,a linear increase in water-soluble polysaccharides was detected.These mainly comprised galactose-rich polymers in the first3 months and little-branched polyuronides after the fifth month.Two different mechanisms for galactose and uronic acid solubilizationfrom kiwifruit cell walls during fruit development are proposed. Actinidia deliciosa ; cell wall; fruit growth; kiwifruit; water-soluble polysaccharides     

Effect of Hydrogen Cyanamide on Amino Acid Profiles in Kiwifruit Buds during Budbreak

Buds, and resultant shoots, were collected from kiwifruit (Actinidia deliciosa [A. Chev.] CF Liang et AR Ferguson var deliciosa cv Hayward) vines from late autumn until late spring with and without hydrogen cyanamide treatment. Those samples were weighed and analyzed for total nitrogen and free amino acids. By 7 days after hydrogen cyanamide treatment, the amount of proline had risen to nearly one-quarter of the total amino acid pool in the treated buds and that proportion was maintained for at least 14 days before it declined. The maximum concentration detected in treated buds was 25.8 micromoles per gram dry weight, 6.6 times that detected in untreated buds. By 95 days after treatment, the relative amounts of proline were not significantly different.     

Chemical Composition of Bleeding Xylem Sap from Kiwifruit Vines

A study of the chemical composition and charge balance was madeof bleeding xylem sap collected from excised one-year-old extensionshoots of healthy, Mn-deficient, Mn-toxic and Zn-deficient kiwifruitvines (Actinidia deliciosa (A. Chev.) C. F. Liang et A. R. Ferguson)immediately prior to leafburst. The exudates were analysed formacronutrient cations and anions, trace elements, amino acids,organic acids and sugars. Major charged species measured wereCa (13.3 mM), K (8.9 mM), Mg (5.6 mM), malate (12.5 mM) andphosphate (5.8 mM). Glutamine (12 mM) was the predominant Ncarrier identified, accounting for 58 per cent of the totalN followed by NO₂^–-N (4.5 per cent), NH₄⁺-N (3.5 per cent)and arginine-N (2.9 per cent). Approximately 22 per cent ofthe N was in a hydrolysable proteinaceous fraction comprisingmainly glutamine and glutamate. Eighteen free proteinaceousamino acids were idetified in sap, the most abundant being glutamine,glutamic acid, valine, isoleucine and phenylalanine. Computersimulation of the chemical composition predicted that in additionto hydrated cations, ion pairs formed between inorganic components(SO₄^2–, HPO₄^2–, H₂PO₄^–) and cations (Ca²⁺,Mg²⁺, Mn²⁺), plus metal-organic ligand complexes (Ca Malate,Zn Malate, FeCit, CuHis, CuGln) are important species involvedin translocation. The solubility product of hydroxyapatite wasexceeded in all exudates although in vitro precipitation wasnot observed. To achieve electroneutrality with the componentsmeasured, however, formation of precipitate precursors (hydroxyapatitenuclei) had to be assumed. Irregularities in Mn nutrition (butnot Zn) were clearly indicated by the elemental compositionof exudate suggesting the use of sap analysis as a possiblepre-season indicator of nutritional status for this species. Actinidia deliciosa (A. Chev.) C. F. Liang et A. R. Ferguson, kiwifruit, xylem sap composition, trace metals, amino acids, organic acids     

Estimation of the Annual Cost of Kiwifruit Vine Growth and Maintenance

Elemental analysis (for carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen and sulphur)and ash data for kiwifruit [Actinidia deliciosa (A. Chev.) C.F. Liang et A. R. Ferguson var. deliciosa cv. Hayward] stems,leaves and fine roots were used to calculate the specific costs(kg carbohydrate kg^-1 dry matter) of organ synthesis with ammoniacalnitrogen supply. Those costs ranged between 1·19 and1·35 for stems and 1·19 and 1·27 for leaves.The mean annual specific cost for fine roots was 1·17.Seasonal vine growth costs were calculated by multiplying thespecific costs by biomass data for a typical vine. Total costof synthesis was 57·2 kg carbohydrate per vine year^-1,taking fine root turnover as three times per season. Nitratenitrogen supply increased that cost by 6·6% to 61·0kg carbohydrate per vine year^-1. Fruit growth accounted forthe largest proportion of synthetic costs. Vine growth respiration(expressed in terms of carbohydrate equivalents) accounted forapproximately 11·5% of the total cost of synthesis. Maintenancerespiration was estimated to be 5·28, 8·44, 1·90,8·62 and 13·3 kg carbohydrate per organ year^-1for stems, leaves, fruit, above-ground perennial componentsand roots, respectively. Total annual cost of growth and maintenancefor a mature vine was 94·7 and 98·5 kg carbohydrateper vine year^-1 with ammoniacal and nitrate nitrogen supply,respectively. Both values are similar to an estimate of vinephotosynthesis. Maintenance respiration accounted for approximately40% of the total annual cost of vine growth, regardless of theform of nitrogen supplied. Peak carbohydrate demand was duringthe period from 60 to 160 d after budbreak.Copyright 1995, 1999Academic Press Actinidia deliciosa, kiwifruit, carbon economy, growth respiration, maintenance respiration     

Solar light effects on growth,net photosynthesis,and leaf morphology of in vitro kiwifruit (Actinidia deliciosa) CV hayward

Summary Proliferating axillary shoots of kiwifruit (Actinidia deliciosa A. Chev., C. F. Liang and A. R. Ferguson), var.deliciosa, cv. ‘Hayward’ were grown under solar (SL), white (WL), and blue (BL) light regimens to determine the accumulation of fresh and dry weight, proliferation rate, shoot growth (length), and the net leaf photosynthetic capacity at the CO₂ concentration ranges of 200 to 350, 400 to 600, and 1200 to 1500 ppm. An histologic study determined the effects of light source on leaf stomatal density and tissue morphology. Dry and fresh matter accumulation was greatest, but callus development most limited under the SL regimen. Shoot proliferation was highest under WL and length under BL. Net photosynthetic capacity was highest for leaves grown under SL and lowest for those under BL; the leaves exposed to the latter regimen were also thinner and exhibited a less compact arrangement of palisade cells than those under WL and SL. Leaf stomata density was highest under the BL source.     

Xyloglucan endotransglycosylase activity during fruit development and ripening of apple and kiwifruit

Xyloglucan endotransglycosylase (XET) activity was measured in apple (Malus domestica Borkh. cv. Braeburn) pericarp and kiwifruit (Actinidia deliciosa [A. Chev.] C. F. Liang et A. R. Ferguson var. deliciosa cv. Hayward) outer pericarp and core tissues in order to establish whether a correlation exists between the activity of the enzyme and different stages of fruit development Whereas the growth rate of kiwifruit paralleled changes in XET activity throughout fruit growth, that of apple did not. Both fruits showed the highest XET activity, on a fresh weight basis, in the first two weeks after anthesis when cell division was at its highest. XET activity then decreased sharply, but as the fruit increased in size (4–8 weeks after anthesis) there was a concomitant increase in XET activity in both fruits. In the latter stage of fruit development (16–26 weeks after anthesis) XET activity increased to peak at harvest in apple fruit. During this time there was relatively little increase in fruit size and presumably therefore minimal cell expansion. XET activity then declined as fruit softened after harvest. In core tissue from kiwifruit, XET activity increased throughout the later stages of fruit growth to harvest maturity in a similar manner to apple, but continued to increase after harvest until fruit were ripe. In contrast, XET activity in the outer pericarp of kiwifruit did not increase until ripening after harvest. In apple tissue up to 30% of the XET activity was cell wall bound and could not be solubilised, even in buffer containing 2 M NaCl. The results implicate XET in cell wall assembly during cell division and expansion early in apple and kiwifruit growth. However, the disparity between apple and kiwifruit with respect to XET activity late in fruit development and ripening and the different affinities of the enzyme for the cell wall in each fruit, suggest that XET has several roles in plant development, not all of which are related to cell wall loosening during periods of accelerated growth.     

Light enhances differentiation of the vascular system in the fruit of Actinidia deliciosa

Light is recognized as crucial in determining high quality of fleshy fruits, for example, kiwifruit [Actinidia deliciosa var. deliciosa (A. Chev.) C. F. Liang et A. R. Ferguson]. Among the possible mechanisms through which light improves the quality of kiwifruit berry, there may be a direct morphogenic role on the differentiation of the fruit's vascular system, though this has not yet been investigated. The present study's aim was to determine (1) whether light positively affects the differentiation of the vascular system of the fruit and/or the pedicel, and, if so, (2) which component (xylem, phloem, or both) is more affected, and (3) in which period of the berry's development the improvement of the vascular differentiation (if any) occurs. To this end, fruit morphogenesis of kiwifruit was studied in two developmental environments (i.e., in full sunlight and in paper bags that reduced the full sunlight to 10%), and in two phases of fruit development (i.e., 1 and 5 months [harvest] after anthesis). During the growth period, the type of environment did not affect the differentiation pattern of the vascular system in the three types of bundles present in the fruit. However, in comparison with shade, light improved the vasculature in the fruit pericarp and pedicel, inducing a consistently higher extent of the xylary component in the main bundles of the fruit and pedicel, principally due to an increase in the number of xylem elements. The phloic component was also increased by light, but to a much lesser extent than that of the xylary. During the entire period of development, light-grown fruits contained higher concentrations of calcium and magnesium, as compared with shade-grown fruits. In conclusion, in the berry of Actinidia deliciosa, light enhances the differentiation of the vascular system, in particular the xylary component. The hypothesis that fruit quality is improved through a more efficient translocation of specific mineral nutrients (e.g., calcium) via the xylem is presented.     

Influence of pollination systems on fruit set and fruit quality in kiwifruit (Actinidia deliciosa)

Kiwifruit (Actinidia deliciosa (Chev.) Liang and Ferguson) is a dioecious species highly pollination dependent, since fruit size is directly correlated with seed number. To evaluate the best pollination system for this species a study of two natural and two artificial pollination systems was carried out and their effect on fruit set and fruit quality was determined. While anemophilous pollination produced few and small fruits, that were not commercially acceptable, high fruit set percentages and good quality fruits were obtained when insects participated in the pollination process. Artificial pollination, performed as hand pollination, improved yield quantity and quality. When environmental conditions impair insect activity this method can be an useful agricultural practice in order to assure a good yield.     

Phenolic compounds in young developing kiwifruit in relation to light exposure: Implications for fruit calcium accumulation

Abstract

The interaction between light availability and the biosynthesis of phenolic compounds in fruit of kiwifruit (Actinidia deliciosa var. deliciosa, C.F. Liang et A. R. Ferguson) was investigated. Fruits were exposed either to natural light or were artificially shaded while growing on mature vines and were analysed weekly during the first 11 weeks of development. Phenols were identified and quantified by using High Performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC). Results showed that the predominant phenolic compounds were hydroxycinnamic acids (HCAs), flavonols and the flavan 3-ol epicatechin. Calcium (Ca²⁺), the main mineral nutrient involved in fruit quality was also determined. Light significantly increased the accumulation of both phenols and Ca²⁺ into the fruit. This work expands the list of known phenolics in kiwifruit and provides a possible explanation for the seasonal pattern of Ca²⁺ import into the fruit. Results on light–phenol interaction being apparently beneficial for fruit Ca²⁺ accumulation, suggest that accurate canopy management could enhance fruit quality.