ARCHAEOBOTANICAL STUDIES OF ELEUSINE CORACANA SSP. CORACANA (FINGER MILLET)

Two controversial archaeological specimens of finger millet, Eleusine coracana ssp. coracana (L.) Gaertn., were examined by light and scanning electron microscopy. Identification of the material was based on morphological and anatomical comparison with laboratory carbonized grains of modern Eleusine. Seed morphology of the Indian archaeological collection did not conform with those of domesticated or wild species of Eleusine. The other archaeological collection examined is from Ethiopia. It is estimated to date back to the third millennium B.C. These well preserved inflorescence fragments were positively identified as finger millet. If the suggested date is correct, they represent the oldest archaeological record for the crop, as well as the oldest agricultural record for Africa south of the Sahara. These findings support biosystematic evidence for an East African origin of finger millet which leaves India as a secondary center of diversity.     

Morphometric Analysis of Sunflower (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Helianthus annuus</Emphasis> L.) Achenes from Mexico and Eastern North America<Superscript>1</Superscript>

Morphometric Analysis of Sunflower ( Helianthus annuus L.) Achenes from Mexico and Eastern North America. Sunflower (Helianthus annuus L.) has played a major role in the evolution of agricultural systems in the Americas. The discovery of ancient domesticated remains from archaeological deposits in pre-Columbian Mexico offers new dimensions to widely accepted viewpoints on the domestication pattern of H. annuus. Although American sunflower populations north of Mexico have been examined extensively, Mexican indigenous domesticated landraces have not been studied in any detail. In this study, we morphologically assessed wild and domesticated sunflower achenes from Mexico and compared them to similar datasets from eastern North America. Additionally, we evaluated the utility of four computer-assisted shape measurements in discriminating between wild and domesticated sunflower achenes (fruits) and compared variation in achene size among modern wild and cultivated populations from both Mexico and the U.S. We found that, of the shape parameters tested, none were informative in distinguishing wild achenes from domesticated varieties. Subsequent size analysis, using conventional parameters of length, width, and thickness, showed that modern wild populations from Mexico had smaller achenes compared to modern populations from eastern North America. Domesticated achenes unearthed from Mexican archaeological sites, however, were significantly larger than the early domesticated specimens recovered from eastern North America. Our methodological results indicate that variation in archaeological sunflower achenes is better described by conventional size parameters rather than computerized shape analysis.     

Trees Underground: New Insights into Trees and Woodmanship in South-east England c. AD 800–1300

Summary

Study of wood recovered from waterlogged archaeological sites in London reveals much about the trees that grew in the city's hinterland between about AD 800 and 1300. Tentative reconstructions of some specific types of trees and ‘treeland’ have been made by combining three-dimensional recording of the timbers and roundwood with examination of how the wood was used, tree-ring analysis, species identification and experimental work in ancient woodland. It has also been possible to gain some appreciation of general trends during the mediaeval period such as the intensification of woodland management and the disappearance of wildwood conditions.     

Archaeobotany at Oplontis: woody remains from the Roman Villa of Poppaea (Naples, Italy)

The Vesuvius area near Naples, southern Italy, is one of the richest places for archaeological finds from Roman times. The a.d. 79 volcanic eruption also caused the preservation of a huge quantity of archaeobotanical material. In this paper the available wood and charcoal remains from the timber structures as well as from the garden soils of the Villa of Poppea at Oplontis are presented. The analyses provide new evidence of the history of some significant trees of the Mediterranean region, such as Abies alba and Cupressus sempervirens, and allow us to put forward hypotheses about wood use during the Roman period. The identification of the building material confirms that the Romans had a good knowledge of the technological properties of wood and mainly used local resources. There is also evidence of trade in high quality timber, in particular Picea abies. The strong presence of climbing plants and of branches and small size stems of wild trees together with typical ornamental plants in the two gardens of the villa reveals a lack of regular gardening maintenance. This evidence is in agreement with the absence of occupants at the moment of the eruption, since the villa was under restoration after the a.d. 62 earthquake.     

Domestication Syndrome in Caimito (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Chrysophyllum cainito</Emphasis> L.): Fruit and Seed Characteristics

Domestication Syndrome in Caimito ( Chrysophyllum cainito L.): Fruit and Seed Characteristics: The process of domestication is understudied and poorly known for many tropical fruit tree crops. The star apple or caimito tree (Chrysophyllum cainito L., Sapotaceae) is cultivated throughout the New World tropics for its edible fruits. We studied this species in central Panama, where it grows wild in tropical moist forests and is also commonly cultivated in backyard gardens. Using fruits collected over two harvest seasons, we tested the hypothesis that cultivated individuals of C. cainito show distinctive fruit and seed characteristics associated with domestication relative to wild types. We found that cultivated fruits were significantly and substantially larger and allocated more to pulp and less to exocarp than wild fruits. The pulp of cultivated fruits was less acidic; also, the pulp had lower concentrations of phenolics and higher concentrations of sugar. The seeds were larger and more numerous and were less defended with phenolics in cultivated than in wild fruits. Discriminant Analysis showed that, among the many significant differences, fruit size and sugar concentration drove the great majority of the variance distinguishing wild from cultivated classes. Variance of pulp phenolics among individuals was significantly higher among wild trees than among cultivated trees, while variance of fruit mass and seed number was significantly higher among cultivated trees. Most traits showed strong correlations between years. Overall, we found a clear signature of a domestication syndrome in the fruits of cultivated caimito in Panama.     

“Ontellicke boomen” or “countless trees”: reconstructing the late medieval vegetation surrounding the 16th century St Margaretha Convent, Leiden, The Netherlands

At an excavation of the late medieval St Margaretha Convent in Leiden (The Netherlands), archaeobotanical results could be compared with historical data. Both wood and macroremains were analysed to reconstruct the local vegetation and seek evidence of the cultivation of plants. The historical sources available for this estate are a charter prepared in 1572, which listed all trees present just after the abandonment of the convent, and an illustration from 1574 of the convent and its grounds. The charter mentions Salix and Alnus as the most numerous trees present, followed by several other taxa. The archaeological evidence from the wood remains, mostly construction timber with a dominance of Quercus, shows the use of indigenous taxa and some non-indigenous material, which was partly re-used. It is possible that some of the Coniferae were very early home-grown specimens. The trees represented in the macroremains were most probably growing in the immediate vicinity. They specify some of the taxa found as wood or mentioned in the historical text. The identified cultivated plants could all have been grown locally. The vegetation is in general represented by ruderal taxa and plants growing in wet conditions, which form an assemblage typical of an abandoned rural area.     

Earliest evidence of a primitive cultivar of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Vitis vinifera</Emphasis> L. during the Bronze Age in Sardinia (Italy)

The discovery of the Nuragic culture settlement of Sa Osa, Cabras-Oristano, Sardinia, has made it possible to investigate the domestication status of waterlogged uncharred grape pips that were recovered from three wells dating from the Middle and Late Bronze Age (ca. 1350–1150 bc). Applying the stepwise linear discriminant analysis method, a morphological comparison of archaeological seeds and modern wild and cultivated Sardinian grapes pips was performed to determine the similarities between them. The results showed that the archaeological seeds from the Middle Bronze Age have intermediate morphological traits between modern wild and cultivated grape pips from Sardinia. In contrast, the analyses performed on the archaeological seeds from the Late Bronze Age showed a high degree of similarity with the modern cultivars in Sardinia. These results provide the first evidence of primitive cultivated Vitis vinifera in Sardinia during the Late Bronze Age (1286–1115 cal bc, 2σ). This evidence may support the hypothesis that Sardinia could have been a secondary domestication centre of the grapevine, due to the presence of ancient cultivars that still exhibit the phenotypic characteristics of wild grapes.     

Molecular Evidence and the Origin and Development of the Domesticated Sunflower (Helianthus annum, Asteraceae)

The domesticated sunflower,Helianthus annuus, is an important economic crop, yet molecular data regarding its evolution are limited. Here we review morphological, geographical, archaeological, and molecular evidence pertaining to its origin and development. New isozyme and chloroplast DNA (cpDNA) evidence is also presented. Morphological, geographical, and archaeological evidence has led to the hypothesis that the domesticated sunflower was derived from a wild/weedy form ofH. annuus possibly in the Midwest. Molecular evidence was concordant with this hypothesis. A high degree of enzymatic and cpDNA sequence similarity was observed between wild and domesticatedH. annuus, and domesticatedH. annuus contained a subset of the alleles and cpDNAs found in wildH. annuus. The extensive polymorphism in the wild plants and the virtual monomorphism in cultivated lines for both isozyme and cpDNA phenotypes further suggest a single origin of the domesticated sunflower from a very limited gene pool. In addition, Native American varieties of the domesticated sunflower were genetically more variable than other cultivated lines, possibly indicating that they gave rise to the other cultivated stocks. Molecular evidence did not, however, allow conclusions as to the exact geographic origin of the domesticated sunflower.     

Prehistoric Introduction of Domestic Pigs onto the Okinawa Islands: Ancient Mitochondrial DNA Evidence

Ancient DNAs of Sus scrofa specimens excavated from archaeological sites on the Okinawa islands were examined to clarify the genetic relationships among prehistoric Sus scrofa, modern wild boars and domestic pigs inhabiting the Ryukyu archipelago, the Japanese islands, and the Asian continent. We extracted remain DNA from 161 bone specimens excavated from 12 archaeological sites on the Okinawa islands and successfully amplified mitochondrial DNA control region fragments from 33 of 161 specimens. Pairwise difference between prehistoric and modern S. scrofa nucleotide sequences showed that haplotypes of the East Asian domestic pig lineage were found from archaeological specimens together with Ryukyu wild boars native to the Ryukyu archipelago. Phylogenetic analysis of 14 ancient sequences (11 haplotypes; 574 bp) indicated that S. scrofa specimens from two Yayoi-Heian sites (Kitahara and Ara shellmiddens) and two Recent Times sites (Wakuta Kiln and Kiyuna sites) are grouped with modern East Asian domestic pigs. Sus scrofa specimens from Shimizu shellmidden (Yayoi-Heian Period) were very closely related to modern Sus scrofa riukiuanus but had a unique nucleotide insertion, indicating that the population is genetically distinct from the lineage of modern Ryukyu wild boars. This genetic evidence suggests that domestic pigs from the Asian continent were introduced to the Okinawa islands in the early Yayoi-Heian period (1700–2000 BP), or earlier.     

Molecular Evidence and the Origin and Development of the Domesticated Sunflower (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Helianthus annum</Emphasis>, Asteraceae)

The domesticated sunflower,Helianthus annuus, is an important economic crop, yet molecular data regarding its evolution are limited. Here we review morphological, geographical, archaeological, and molecular evidence pertaining to its origin and development. New isozyme and chloroplast DNA (cpDNA) evidence is also presented.Morphological, geographical, and archaeological evidence has led to the hypothesis that the domesticated sunflower was derived from a wild/weedy form ofH. annuus possibly in the Midwest. Molecular evidence was concordant with this hypothesis. A high degree of enzymatic and cpDNA sequence similarity was observed between wild and domesticatedH. annuus, and domesticatedH. annuus contained a subset of the alleles and cpDNAs found in wildH. annuus. The extensive polymorphism in the wild plants and the virtual monomorphism in cultivated lines for both isozyme and cpDNA phenotypes further suggest a single origin of the domesticated sunflower from a very limited gene pool. In addition, Native American varieties of the domesticated sunflower were genetically more variable than other cultivated lines, possibly indicating that they gave rise to the other cultivated stocks. Molecular evidence did not, however, allow conclusions as to the exact geographic origin of the domesticated sunflower.     

Eight hundred-year-old human remains from the Ituri tropical forest, Democratic Republic of Congo: the rock shelter site of Matangai Turu Northwest

Little is known about human prehistory in the central African lowland tropical forest due to a paucity of archaeological evidence. Here we report results from our archaeological investigations of a late Holocene site in the northeast Congo Basin, with emphasis on a single skeleton from the rock shelter site of Matangai Turu Northwest, in the Ituri Forest, Democratic Republic of Congo. The skeleton dates from approximately 810 BP (1235 calibrated AD) and is associated with Later Stone Age lithics, animal bone and shell remains from wild taxa, fruit endocarps from forest trees, phytoliths from tropical forest plants, Late Iron Age ceramics, and a single iron artifact. Phytolith analysis indicates that the habitat was dense tropical forest, without evidence of domesticated food.     

Response of Forest Trees to Increased Atmospheric CO 2

The CO ₂ fertilization hypothesis stipulates that rising atmospheric CO ₂ has a positive effect on tree growth due to increasing availability of carbon. The objective of this paper is to compare the recent literature related to both field CO ₂ -enriched experiments with trees and empirical dendrochronological studies detecting CO ₂ fertilization effects in tree-rings. This will allow evaluation of tree growth responses to atmospheric CO ₂ enrichment by combining evidence from both ecophysiology and tree-ring research. Based on considerable experimental evidence of direct CO ₂ fertilization effect (increased photosynthesis, water use efficiency, and above- and belowground biomass), and predications from the interactions of enriched CO ₂ with temperature, nitrogen and drought, we propose that warm, moderately drought-stressed ecosystems with an ample nitrogen supply might be the most CO ₂ responsive ecosystems. Empirical tree-ring studies took the following three viewpoints on detecting CO ₂ fertilization effect in tree-rings: 1) finding evidence of CO ₂ fertilization effect in tree-rings, 2) attributing growth enhancement to favorable climate rather than atmospheric CO ₂ enrichment, and 3) considering that tree growth enhancement might be caused by synergistic effects of several factors such as favorable climate change, CO ₂ fertilization, and anthropogenic atmospheric deposition (e.g., nitrogen). At temperature-limiting sites such as high elevations, nonfindings of CO ₂ fertilization evidence could be ascribed to the following possibilities: 1) cold temperatures, a short season of cambial division, and nitrogen deficiency that preclude a direct CO ₂ response, 2) old trees past half of their maximum life expectancy and consequently only a small increase in biomass increment due to CO ₂ fertilization effect might be diminished, 3) the elimination of age/size-related trends by statistical detrending of tree-ring series that might remove some long-term CO ₂ -related trends in tree-rings, and 4) carbon partitioning and growth within a plant that is species-specific. Our review supports the atmospheric CO ₂ fertilization effect hypothesis, at least in trees growing in semi-arid or arid conditions because the drought-stressed trees could benefit from increased water use efficiency to enhance growth.     

Economic Analysis of the Legal Regimes Governing Salvage of Historic Shipwrecks

This article offers an economic analysis of the international and U.S. laws governing the recovery of archaeological data from historic shipwrecks. The framework combines values of treasure salvage and archaeological knowledge. It is suggested that U.S. salvage law, sometimes extended to international waters, gives insufficient protection to archaeological value, but that UNESCO's Convention on the Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage goes too far in the other direction. Two other legal regimes (government-salvager and interstate agreements) are shown to have the potential to maximize the social values of historic shipwrecks. It is also suggested that a move towards maximizing social values would be promoted if the U.S. admiralty courts tied the size of salvage awards more closely to the quality of the archaeological work performed.     

PLAINS FACTS

Abstract

A report of one of the first attempts to date an archaeological site in the United States by dendrochronological methods. Dr. Manesseh Cutler in 1888 attempted to establish the antiquity of the Marietta, Ohio earthworks by dating the largest trees which covered them. On the largest sound trees he counted from 300 to 400 concentric circles with the maximum age of 463 years. He concluded the works to have been deserted more than 900 years ago and if occupied for 100 years to have been erected more than 1000 years ago. By modern dating methods his estimate is conservative but is nonetheless based upon meticulous observations.     

Man and Bison on the Plains in the Protohistoric Period

Abstract

The presence of great herds of buffalo on the Central and Southern High Plains in early historic times may have been a recent phenomenon that discouraged reoccupation of the area by horticultural groups and encouraged proto-Apacheans who were already hunters of large herd animals to move southward. Such a possibility is supported by both archaeological and historical evidence.     

Investigations of pod characters in the Vivieae

A study of the fruits of modern members of the Vicieae (vetch tribe) has been undertaken to seek morphological, micromorphological and anatomical criteria which may assist in the identification of the archaeological remains of pods and in particular ones that may be useful for the diagnosis of their wild or domesticated status. The study included wild and domesticated Pisum (peas), Lens (lentils) and Vicia (common vetch) and some of their wild relatives found in the Old World. The results show that the micromorphological features of the pod surface tend to be highly variable, and do not distinguish the taxa. Most importantly, the pods of less-developed domesticated taxa show no reduction in the number of fibrous layers in the pod wall compared with those of their closest wild relatives, and no morphological or anatomical evidence has been found to indicate the dehiscent or indehiscent status of a pod. This appears to challenge some of our accepted wisdom on the mechanics of legume dehiscence. Received August 8, 2001 / Accepted January 15, 2002     

Bone Fragments and Bone Grease Manufacturing: A Review of their Archaeological Use and Potential

Abstract

The presence of small bone fragments in the archaeological record has been frequently used to infer the activities of bone grease and/or soup manufacturing. This article explores the possibility that the activity or activity-complexes responsible for the bone fragments might be manipulated to account for additional archaeological data. Emphasis is placed on building predictive models against which the data from three Northern Plains-Upper Midwest archaeological sites will be compared. Results indicate that such an approach provides more information about the cultural activities being conducted at a site than does the other approach.     

Intracemetery Morphological Variation in Arikara Crania From The Sully Site (39SL4), Sully County,South Dakota

Abstract

Canonical analysis is used to examine intracemetery variation in cranial morphology in the Sully site Arikara skeletal collection. The site included four spatially distinct burial areas. lnterarea morphological differences in the crania are shown to relate to the multicomponent nature of the associated village. The proposed temporal relationships based on archaeological data are supported by the cranial evidence.     

Castles and Abbeys in Wales: Refugia for ‘Mediaeval’ Medicinal Plants

Summary

The restriction to the walls and immediate vicinity of Welsh castles, abbeys and other ancient settlement of a group of species known to have medicinal properties, coupled with the absence of these species from apparently suitable intervening terrain, suggests relict status from former cultivation. On site archaeological evidence of relevant seed or other macro-remains is sparse from these sites. Arguments in favour of such lengthy survival at these ‘ancient’ locations are discussed, as is the alternative view that only at such sites are suitable habitat requirements met. Species considered include Sambucus ebulus, Hyoscyamus niger, Verbena officinalis and Lamium album.     

Evolutionary origins of taro (Colocasia esculenta) in Southeast Asia

As an ancient clonal root and leaf crop, taro (Colocasia esculenta, Araceae) is highly polymorphic with uncertain genetic and geographic origins. We explored chloroplast DNA diversity in cultivated and wild taros, and closely related wild taxa, and found cultivated taro to be polyphyletic, with tropical and temperate clades that appear to originate in Southeast Asia sensu lato. A third clade was found exclusively in wild populations from Southeast Asia to Australia and Papua New Guinea. Our findings do not support the hypothesis of taro domestication in Papua New Guinea, despite archaeological evidence for early use or cultivation there, and the presence of apparently natural wild populations in the region (Australia and Papua New Guinea).