Heparin enhances the furin cleavage of HIV-1 gp160 peptides

Infectious HIV-1 requires gp160 cleavage by furin at the REKR511 downward arrow motif (site1) into the gp120/gp41 complex, whereas the KAKR503 (site2) sequence remains uncleaved. We synthesized 41mer and 51mer peptides, comprising site1 and site2, to study their conformation and in vitro furin processing. We found that, while the previously reported 19mer and 13mer analogues represent excellent in vitro furin substrates, the present extended sequences require heparin for optimal processing. Our data support the hypothesis of a direct binding of heparin with site1 and site2, allowing selective exposure/accessibility of the REKR sequence, which is only then optimally cleaved by furin.     

Endoproteolytic cleavage of gp160 is required for the activation of human immunodeficiency virus

The envelope protein of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) is synthesized as a polyprotein (gp160) and cleaved intracellularly to a gp120-gp41 heterodimer. In this study, the tryptic-like endoproteolytic cleavage site was removed by site-directed mutagenesis and replaced with a chymotryptic-like site. The resultant mutant, RIP7/mut10, was found to be indistinguishable from wild-type HIV when analyzed at the level of proviral replication, RNA processing, protein expression, and viral assembly. However, the gp160 polyprotein was not cleaved and the mutated virions were biologically inactive, until and unless they were exposed to limiting concentrations of chymotrypsin. As is the case for other enveloped mammalian viruses, endoproteolytic cleavage of the HIV envelope protein and release of a unique hydrophobic domain appear to be necessary for the full expression of viral infectivity.     

Maturation of human lactase-phlorizin hydrolase. Proteolytic cleavage of precursor occurs after passage through the Golgi complex.

Maturation of human intestinal lactase-phlorizin hydrolase (LPH) requires that a precursor (pro-LPH) be proteolytically processed to the mature microvillus membrane enzyme (m-LPH). The subcellular site of this processing is unknown. Using low-temperature experiments and brefeldin A (BFA), intracellular transport was blocked in intestinal epithelial cells. In Caco-2 cells incubated at 18 degrees C, pro-LPH was complex-glycosylated but not cleaved, while at 20 degrees C small amounts of proteolytically processed LPH were observed. These data exclude a pre-Golgi proteolytic event. BFA completely blocked proteolytic maturation of LPH and lead to an aberrant form of pro-LPH in both Caco-2 cells and intestinal explants. Therefore, proteolytic processing of LPH is a post-Golgi event, occurring either in the trans-Golgi network, transport vesicles, or after insertion of pro-LPH into the microvillus membrane.     

Mutations in envelope gp120 can impact proteolytic processing of the gp160 precursor and thereby affect neutralization sensitivity of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 pseudoviruses

The design of an efficient human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) immunogen able to generate broad neutralizing antibodies (NAbs) remains an elusive goal. As more data emerge, it is becoming apparent that one important aspect of such an immunogen will be the proper representation of the envelope protein (Env) as it exists on native virions. Important questions that are yet to be fully addressed include what factors dictate Env processing, how different Env forms are represented on the virion, and ultimately how these issues influence the development and efficacy of NAbs. Recent data have begun to illuminate the extent to which changes in gp41 can impact the overall structure and neutralizing sensitivity of Env. Here, we present evidence to suggest that minor mutations in gp120 can significantly impact Env processing. We analyzed the gp120 sequences of 20 env variants that evolved in multiple macaques over 8 months of infection with simian/human immunodeficiency virus 89.6P. Variant gp120 sequences were subcloned into gp160 expression plasmids with identical cleavage motifs and gp41 sequences. Cells cotransfected with these plasmids and Δenv genomes were able to produce competent virus. The resulting pseudoviruses incorporated high levels of Env onto virions that exhibited a range of degrees of virion-associated Env cleavage (15 to 40%). Higher levels of cleavage correlated with increased infectivity and increased resistance to macaque plasma, HIV immunoglobulin, soluble CD4, and human monoclonal antibodies 4E10, 2F5, and b12. Based on these data, we discuss a model whereby changes in gp120 of 89.6P impact Env processing and thereby mediate escape from a range of neutralizing agents.     

Sphingomyelin synthesis in rat liver occurs predominantly at the cis and medial cisternae of the Golgi apparatus

The intracellular site of sphingomyelin (SM) synthesis was examined in subcellular fractions from rat liver using a radioactive ceramide analog N-([1-14C]hexanoyl)-D-erythro-sphingosine. This lipid readily transferred from a complex with bovine serum albumin to liver fractions without disrupting the membranes, and was metabolized to radioactive SM. To prevent degradation of the newly synthesized SM to ceramide, all experiments were performed in the presence of EDTA to minimize neutral sphingomyelinase activity and at neutral pH to minimize acid sphingomyelinase activity. An intact Golgi apparatus fraction gave an 85-98-fold enrichment of SM synthesis and a 58-83-fold enrichment of galactosyltransferase activity. Controlled trypsin digestion demonstrated that SM synthesis was localized to the lumen of intact Golgi apparatus vesicles. Although small amounts of SM synthesis were detected in plasma membrane and rough microsome fractions, after accounting for contamination by Golgi apparatus membranes, their combined activity contributed less than 13% of the total SM synthesis in rat liver. Subfractions of the Golgi apparatus were obtained and characterized by immunoblotting and biochemical assays using cis/medial (mannosidase II) and trans (sialyltransferase and galactosyltransferase) Golgi apparatus markers. The specific activity of SM synthesis was highest in enriched cis and medial fractions but far lower in a trans fraction. We conclude that SM synthesis in rat liver occurs predominantly in the cis and medial cisternae of the Golgi apparatus and not at the plasma membrane or endoplasmic reticulum as has been previously suggested.     

HIV-1 gp41 and gp160 are hyperthermostable proteins in a mesophilic environment. Characterization of gp41 mutants.

HIV gp41(24-157) unfolds cooperatively over the pH range of 1.0-4.0 with T(m) values of > 100 degrees C. At pH 2.8, protein unfolding was 80% reversible and the DeltaH(vH)/DeltaH(cal) ratio of 3.7 is indicative of gp41 being trimeric. No evidence for a monomer-trimer equilibrium in the concentration range of 0.3-36 micro m was obtained by DSC and tryptophan fluorescence. Glycosylation of gp41 was found to have only a marginal impact on the thermal stability. Reduction of the disulfide bond or mutation of both cysteine residues had only a marginal impact on protein stability. There was no cooperative unfolding event in the DSC thermogram of gp160 in NaCl/P(i), pH 7.4, over a temperature range of 8-129 degrees C. When the pH was lowered to 5.5-3.4, a single unfolding event at around 120 degrees C was noted, and three unfolding events at 93.3, 106.4 and 111.8 degrees C were observed at pH 2.8. Differences between gp41 and gp160, and hyperthermostable proteins from thermophile organisms are discussed. A series of gp41 mutants containing single, double, triple or quadruple point mutations were analysed by DSC and CD. The impact of mutations on the protein structure, in the context of generating a gp41 based vaccine antigen that resembles a fusion intermediate state, is discussed. A gp41 mutant, in which three hydrophobic amino acids in the gp41 loop were replaced with charged residues, showed an increased solubility at neutral pH.     

Activation of human furin precursor processing endoprotease occurs by an intramolecular autoproteolytic cleavage.

Human furin is a calcium-dependent serine endoprotease that can efficiently cleave many precursor proteins on the carboxyl side of the consensus cleavage sequence, -Arg-X-Lys/Arg-Arg-, both in vivo and in vitro. Analysis of furin proteins in extracts of cells infected with a vaccinia recombinant expressing human furin show that the enzyme is present as two prominent forms of 90 and 96 kDa. Because the structurally related bacterial subtilisins require endoproteolytic removal of the NH2-terminal pro-region by an autocatalytic intramolecular cleavage, we speculated that the size heterogeneity in the furin doublet similarly may result from a proteolytic removal of an NH2-terminal pro-region. Here we report identification of the 90-kDa furin NH2 terminus and, based on the reported sequence of the furin cDNA, demonstrate that this furin protein is derived from a larger precursor by an endoproteolytic cleavage on the COOH-terminal side of a consensus furin cleavage site, -Arg-Thr-Lys-Arg107-. Expression of mutant furin molecules containing an altered cleavage site (Arg104----Ala or Arg107----Gly) resulted in the production of only the 96-kDa furin protein. Assays of furin-dependent cleavage of a protein substrate in vitro showed that proteolytic activity was associated with the 90-kDa and not the 96-kDa furin protein, demonstrating that removal of the NH2-terminal pro-region is required for furin activity. Expression of a third furin construct containing a mutation of the active site aspartate (Asp153----Asn) similarly resulted in the expression of only the 96-kDa protein, suggesting that furin activation occurs by an autoproteolytic cleavage. Finally, the production of 90-kDa furin from either site-directed furin mutant could not be potentiated by overexpressing active furin, suggesting that the autoproteolytic activation was an intramolecular event.     

Linear epitope mapping of humoral responses induced by vaccination with recombinant HIV-1 envelope protein gp160

To enhance utility of the linear epitope mapping (Pepscan) technique for assay of humoral responses linked to vaccination, two modifications were tested. First, peptides were incubated with serum contained in baths rather than individual wells. Second, a rigorous statistical model was developed to determine which peptide/antibody-binding interactions were significant. The modifications increased the ability to detect signal in these experiments by 15- to 45-fold. These two modifications were applied to linear epitope mapping of HIV seropositive volunteers under treatment with recombinant HIV gp160 and also to rabbits immunized with the same product. Changes in fine specificity of response were observed in animal models and human vaccine recipients over the course of an immunization series with this antigen. Received 16 July 1996/ Accepted in revised form 09 April 1997     

Inhibition of the calcium release-activated calcium (CRAC) current in Jurkat T cells by the HIV-1 envelope protein gp160.

The HIV-1 envelope glycoprotein gp120/160 has pleiotropic effects on T cell function. We investigated whether Ca(2+) signaling, a crucial step for T cell activation, was altered by prolonged exposure of Jurkat T cells to gp160. Microfluorometric measurements showed that Jurkat cells incubated with gp160 had smaller (approximately 40%) increases in [Ca(2+)](i) in response to phytohemagglutinin and had a reduced Ca(2+) influx (approximately 25%). gp160 had similar effects on Jurkat cells challenged with thapsigargin. We used the patch clamp technique to record the Ca(2+) current, which is responsible for Ca(2+) influx and has properties of the calcium release-activated Ca(2+) current (I(CRAC)). gp160 reduced I(CRAC) by approximately 40%. The inhibitory effects of gp160 were antagonized by staurosporine (0.1 microm), an inhibitor of protein-tyrosine kinases and protein kinase Cs (PKCs), and by G? 6976 (5 microm), an inhibitor acting especially on PKC alpha and PKC beta I. 12-O-Tetradecanoyl phorbol 13-acetate (16 nm), a PKC activator, reproduced the effects of gp160 in untreated cells. A Western blotting analysis of PKC isoforms alpha, beta I, delta, and zeta showed that only the cellular distribution of PKC alpha and -beta I were significantly modified by gp160. In addition, gp160 was able to modify the subcellular distribution of PKC alpha and PKC beta I caused by phytohemagglutinin. Therefore the reduction in I(CRAC) caused by prolonged incubation with gp160 is probably mediated by PKC alpha or -beta I.     

Endoproteolytic processing of the dibasic cleavage site in the human protein C precursor in transfected mammalian cells: effects of sequence alterations on efficiency of cleavage

The human protein C precursor undergoes extensive co- and posttranslational modification during its biosynthesis in the liver. These modifications include glycosylation, gamma-carboxylation and beta-hydroxylation of specific amino acids, and endoproteolytic processing to remove the pre- and propeptides and also to remove the pair of basic amino acids that connect the light and heavy chains in the precursor. Specific molecular signals have been elucidated which direct several of these modifications; however, the mechanism for cleavage and removal of the basic amino acid pair has not been established. In the present study, a recombinant mammalian expression system has been used to study the molecular signals that direct removal of this basic amino acid pair. Mutations were introduced by site-directed mutagenesis either to insert additional basic amino acids or to alter the sequence adjacent to the basic pair by point mutations. The mutant protein precursors were expressed and analyzed for the degree of processing to 2-chain form and also for the location of the cleavage site (by N-terminal sequencing) and subsequent removal of the basic amino acids from the newly formed C terminus of the light chain. These experiments have shown that human protein C can be readily synthesized and secreted in several mammalian cell lines. However, cell lines vary considerably in their capacity to remove the dibasic pair in the protein C precursor and, like the liver, secrete a mixed population of 1-chain and 2-chain forms of the protein.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)     

Evolution of the HIV-1 envelope glycoproteins with a disulfide bond between gp120 and gp41

Background

The HIV-1 genome encodes a well-conserved accessory gene product, Vpr, that serves multiple functions in the retroviral life cycle, including the enhancement of viral replication in nondividing macrophages, the induction of G2 cell-cycle arrest, and the modulation of HIV-1-induced apoptosis. We previously reported the genetic selection of a panel of di-tryptophan (W)-containing peptides capable of interacting with HIV-1 Vpr and inhibiting its cytostatic activity in Saccharomyces cerevisiae (Yao, X.-J., J. Lemay, N. Rougeau, M. Clément, S. Kurtz, P. Belhumeur, and E. A. Cohen, J. Biol. Chem. v. 277, p. 48816–48826, 2002). In this study, we performed a mutagenic analysis of Vpr to identify sequence and/or structural determinants implicated in the interaction with di-W-containing peptides and assessed the effect of mutations on Vpr-induced cytostatic activity in S. cerevisiae.

Results

Our data clearly shows that integrity of N-terminal α-helix I (17–33) and α-helix III (53–83) is crucial for Vpr interaction with di-W-containing peptides as well as for the protein-induced cytostatic effect in budding yeast. Interestingly, several Vpr mutants, mainly in the N- and C-terminal domains, which were previously reported to be defective for cell-cycle arrest or apoptosis in human cells, still displayed a cytostatic activity in S. cerevisiae and remained sensitive to the inhibitory effect of di-W-containing peptides.

Conclusions

Vpr-induced growth arrest in budding yeast can be effectively inhibited by GST-fused di-W peptide through a specific interaction of di-W peptide with Vpr functional domain, which includes α-helix I (17–33) and α-helix III (53–83). Furthermore, the mechanism(s) underlying Vpr-induced cytostatic effect in budding yeast are likely to be distinct from those implicated in cell-cycle alteration and apoptosis in human cells.     

A novel intermediate in processing of murine leukemia virus envelope glycoproteins. Proteolytic cleavage in the late Golgi region.

The intracellular processing of the murine leukemia virus envelope glycoprotein precursor Pr85 to the mature products gp70 and p15e was analyzed in the mouse T-lymphoma cell line W7MG1. Kinetic (pulse-chase) analysis of synthesis and processing, coupled with endoglycosidase (endo H) and neuraminidase digestions revealed the existence of a novel high molecular weight processing intermediate, gp95, containing endo H-resistant terminally glycosylated oligosaccharide chains. In contrast to previously published conclusions, our data indicate that proteolytic cleavage of the envelope precursor occurs after the acquisition of endo H-resistant chains and terminal glycosylation and thus after the mannosidase II step. In the same W7MG1 cell line, the type and order of murine leukemia virus envelope protein processing events was identical to that for the mouse mammary tumor virus envelope protein. Interestingly, complete mouse mammary tumor virus envelope protein processing requires the addition of glucocorticoid hormone, whereas murine leukemia virus envelope protein processing occurs constitutively in these W7MG1 cells. We propose that all retroviral envelope proteins share a common processing pathway in which proteolytic processing is a late event that follows acquisition of endo H resistance and terminal glycosylation.     

HIV-1 gp160截短蛋白在酿酒酵母中的表达

利用PCR技术从pNL-43上扩增出截短的编码gp160蛋白的基因片断,克隆到酿酒酵母表达载体YEpFLAG-1上构建表达质粒YEp-gp160Δ12,电转化到酿酒酵母中,用缺色氨酸的SC培养基筛选出阳性克隆,重组子经YP培养基诱导后进行全菌蛋白的SDS-PAGE和Western Blotting分析,筛选出高表达菌株.纯化后的重组gp160Δ12(rgp160Δ12)蛋白经ELISA鉴定显示具有良好的生物活性.     

Characterization of a vaccinia-derived recombinant HIV-1 gp160 candidate vaccine and its immunogenicity in chimpanzees.

The human immunodeficiency virus (HIV-1) envelope glycoprotein gp160 was produced in large-scale microcarrier cultures of Vero cells, using a system involving coinfection with two recombinant vaccinia viruses. The immunogenicity of this material was studied in conjunction with a number of different adjuvant formulations, and chimpanzees were then immunized with gp160 in conjunction with Al(OH)3, Al(OH)3 and sodium deoxycholate, and a lipid-based adjuvant. The Al(OH)3-gp160 vaccine formulation elicited very poor immune responses in two chimpanzees, and these animals were further immunized with gp160 in conjunction with a lipid-based adjuvant. Immunization with the latter formulation lead to induction of high-titer neutralizing antibodies, and, following challenge with HIV-1, one chimpanzee demonstrated no evidence of virus infection over a period of 3 years. The second chimpanzee, which had previously been infected with non-A, non-B hepatitis, and two animals immunized with gp160 with Al(OH)3 and deoxycholate were not protected against challenge.     

Conformational changes in HIV-1 gp41 in the course of HIV-1 envelope glycoprotein-mediated fusion and inactivation

HIV-1 envelope glycoprotein-mediated fusion is driven by the concerted coalescence of the HIV-1 gp41 N- and C-helical regions, which results in the formation of 6-helix bundles. These two regions are considered prime targets for peptides and antibodies that inhibit HIV-1 entry. However, the parameters that govern this inhibition have yet to be elucidated. We address this issue by monitoring the temporal sequence of conformational states of HIV-1 gp41 during the course of HIV-1-mediated cell-cell fusion by quantitative video microscopy using reagents that bind to N- and C-helical regions, respectively. Env-expressing cells were primed by incubation with target cells at different times at 37 degrees C followed by washing. The reactivity of triggered gp41 to the NC-1 monoclonal antibody, which we demonstrate here to bind to N-helical gp41 trimers, increased rapidly to a maximal level in the primed state but decreased once stable fusion junctions had formed. In contrast, reactivity with 5-helix, which binds to the C-helical region of gp41, increased continuously as a function of time following the priming. The peptide N36(Mut(e,g)) reduced NC-1 monoclonal antibody binding and enhanced 5-helix binding, consistent with the notion that this molecule promotes dissociation of gp41 trimers. This inactivation pathway may be important for the design of entry inhibitors and vaccine candidates.     

HIV-1 gp41 six-helix bundle formation occurs rapidly after the engagement of gp120 by CXCR4 in the HIV-1 Env-mediated fusion process

The onset of cell fusion mediated by HIV-1 IIIB Env is preceded by a lag phase of 15-20 min. Fusion mediated by the CD4-independent HIV-1 Env 8x, which is capable of interacting directly with CXCR4, proceeds with a greatly reduced lag phase. We probed the intermediate steps during the lag phase in HIV-1 IIIB Env-mediated fusion with Leu3-a, an inhibitor of attachment of gp120 to CD4, AMD3100, an inhibitor of attachment of gp120 to CXCR4, and C34, a synthetic peptide that interferes with the transition of gp41 to the fusion active state. Inhibitions of fusion as a function of time of addition of C34 and of AMD3100 were equivalent, indicating that engagement of gp120 by CXCR4 and formation of the gp41 six-helix bundle follow similar kinetics. The initial steps in fusion mediated by the CD4-independent Env 8x are too rapid for these inhibitors to interfere with. However, when 8x Env-expressing cells were incubated with target cells at 25 degrees C in the presence of AMD3100 or C34, prior to incubation at 37 degrees C, these inhibitors were capable of inhibiting 8x Env-mediated fusion. To further examine engagement of gp120 by CXCR4 and exposure of binding sites for C34, we have reversibly arrested the fusion reaction at 37 degrees C by adding cytochalasin B to the medium. We show that CXCR4 engagement and six-helix bundle formation only occur after the release of the cytochalasin arrest, indicating that a high degree of cooperativity is required to trigger the initial steps in HIV-1 Env-mediated fusion.     

Exposure of the membrane-proximal external region of HIV-1 gp41 in the course of HIV-1 envelope glycoprotein-mediated fusion

The membrane-proximal external region (MPER) of HIV-1 gp41 is highly conserved and critical for the fusogenic ability of the virus. However, little is known about the activity of this region in the context of viral fusion. In this study we investigate the temporal exposure of MPER during the course of HIV-1 Env-mediated fusion. We employed the broadly neutralizing monoclonal antibodies 2F5 and 4E10, whose epitopes localize to this region as indicators for accessibility to this region. Time of addition experiments indicated that escape of HIV-1 infection inhibition by 2F5 and 4E10 occurred concomitantly with that of C34, a peptide that blocks the six-helix bundle formation and fusion, which was about 20 min later than escape of inhibition by the mAb b12 that blocks CD4-gp120 attachment. We also probed accessibility of the MPER region on fusion intermediates by measuring the binding of the monoclonal antibodies at different time points during the fusion reaction. Immunofluorescence and in-cell Western assays showed that binding of 2F5 and 4E10 decreased upon triggering HIV-1 Env-expressing cells with appropriate target cells. Addition of C34 did not counteract the loss of antibody binding, suggesting that changes in exposure of MPER occur independently of six-helix bundle formation.     

Several antigenic determinants exposed on the gp120 moiety of HIV-1 gp160 are hidden on the mature gp120

Mouse mAb reactive to the HIV-1 envelope glycoprotein precursor gp160 of the HTLVIII(B) isolate were characterized in radioimmunoprecipitation and immunoblot tests with the use of HTLVIII(B) isolate as Ag. The reactivities of these mAb were also measured in a capture enzyme immunoassay and in radioimmunoprecipitation assay by using gp160 and gp120 expressed as vaccinia recombinants. Striking differences in exposure of specific epitopes were noted between the gp120 component of the gp160 precursor and the fully processed gp120 in both tests. These conformational rearrangements affecting the gp120 moiety of the HIV-1 envelope glycoprotein might have important implications on its immunogenicity.     

Identification of membrane-active regions of the HIV-1 envelope glycoprotein gp41 using a 15-mer gp41-peptide scan

The identification of membrane-active regions of the ectodomain of the HIV-1 envelope glycoprotein gp41 has been made by determining the effect on membrane integrity of a 15-mer gp41-derived peptide library. By monitoring the effect of this peptide library on membrane leakage, we have identified three regions on the gp41 ectodomain with membrane-interacting capabilities: Region 1, which would roughly correspond to the polar sequence which follows the fusion domain and extends to the N-terminal heptad repeat region; Region 2, which would correspond to the immunodominant loop; and Region 3, which would correspond to the pre-transmembrane region of gp41. The identification of these three regions supports their direct role in membrane fusion as well as facilitating the future development of HIV-1 entry inhibitors.     

Conserved cysteine residues in the human immunodeficiency virus type 1 transmembrane envelope protein are essential for precursor envelope cleavage.

The transmembrane (TM) protein of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 has been demonstrated to be involved in viral infectivity and syncytium formation. Two highly conserved cysteine residues in the extracellular region of the TM protein are shown to be essential for processing the 160-kDa envelope precursor into the active 120- and 41-kDa mature forms.