哺乳动物雌性生殖干细胞研究的质疑、进展及挑战

传统观点认为雌性哺乳动物在出生后即失去产生新生殖细胞的能力,但近年来研究人员在多种出生后的哺乳动物卵巢内成功分离并培养到一类生殖细胞,这类细胞具有自我增殖和分化成卵母细胞的能力,从而确认出生后的哺乳类动物卵巢内存在雌性生殖干细胞的事实。该文拟从雌性生殖干细胞的研究历史及发现,生殖界对雌性生殖干细胞的质疑,近年来雌性生殖干细胞的研究进展和应用,以及当前雌性生殖干细胞研究所存在的不足、所面临的机遇与挑战作一评述。     

新型蛋白质选择性干扰抑癌基因

上海交通大学的研究人员经过长时间探索,首次在出生后的小鼠卵巢中发现了生殖干细胞,将分离得到的生殖干细胞移植于经药物处理的不孕成年小鼠体内,能产生新的卵母细胞并发育至成熟,与雄性交配后能生出正常后代。这一发现改变了认为雌性卵母细胞的产生仅在胎儿期的传统观点,该研究成果能为动物生物技术和人类提供卵母细胞新来源,对治疗卵巢功能早衰、不育症等疾病具有重要意义。     

哺乳动物卵巢生殖干细胞研究的现状与未来

哺乳动物卵巢中是否存在卵细胞再生(neo-oogenesis)及卵巢生殖干细胞一直是生殖生物学领域的争议热点之一。传统观点认为哺乳动物雌性个体出生后不再有新的卵细胞生成,即个体出生时生殖细胞已发育到原始卵泡(primordial follicle)阶段,停留在第一次减数分裂前期的双线期(diplotene),之后卵泡池中的配子或凋亡,或重新启动发育,没有生殖干细胞通过再生来产生新的卵子补充到卵泡库中。然而,近年的研究结果发现,小鼠和人卵巢中可以分离出一类生殖细胞,它们在体外培养条件下具有增殖和自我更新的能力,移植入卵巢后可以分化形成有功能的卵细胞,从而挑战了这一传统理念。但是,生理条件下卵巢中是否也存在这样一类生殖干细胞,其生理功能如何。该文就此方面的研究现状和未来发展进行评述。     

哺乳动物卵巢生殖干细胞的研究进展与争议

关于雌性哺乳动物卵子再生的问题一直存有争议,1951年后人们普遍认为卵子数会随年龄增长而下降,不存在再生。近年来有学者对此提出质疑,他们在研究小鼠卵子凋亡时发现,卵巢内可能存在具有有丝分裂活性的生殖干细胞,随即引起了激烈讨论。虽然有一些实验结果对卵巢生殖干细胞的存在提出质疑,但是越来越多的研究提供了其存在的证据。卵巢生殖干细胞的研究一旦成熟,对基础及临床将具有深远影响。现对卵巢生殖干细胞的发现和研究现状及潜在应用展开综述。     

卵巢干细胞:人类辅助生育技术的新希望

如今,人类在干细胞治疗领域已取得多个方面重大进展,其中研究最多的就是胚胎干细胞和骨髓多能干细胞,而在临床实际中,获得国家批准使用的则只有针对白血病等血液系统疾病的骨髓造血干细胞。最近的研究表明,在哺乳动物的卵巢之中可能同样存在着生殖干细胞(GSC)。哺乳动物卵巢内存在GSC的理论一经提出便遭到了科学界众多研究者的质疑,因为它颠覆了自上个世纪50年代以来,由Solomon Zuckerman奠定生物学共识——卵母细胞从宿主出生以后便失去了一切再生能力。一旦GSC存在得到了临床阶段的证实,将彻底解决女性功能性不育的问题。     

哺乳动物出生后卵巢中卵子再发生的研究进展

关于哺乳动物出生后卵巢内是否有新的卵子继续发生或者说出生后的卵巢中是否存在生殖干细胞以维持卵子继续发生问题,一直存在争议.占主流的观点是"出生后的卵巢内卵泡不可更新"说,但仍不断有报道对此论断提出挑战.这既是个生殖生物学的重大基础理论问题,又对雌性生殖、生殖医学、生殖期的延长及干细胞研究等许多相关问题有着极大的影响和深远的意义.因此就这一争议性问题的研究进程作简要回顾.     

小鼠卵巢生殖干细胞分离培养鉴定

通过比较不同酶分离方法获得小鼠（Mus musculus）卵巢生殖干细胞的数量以及不同饲养层培养卵巢生殖干细胞的生长状态,筛选出最佳酶分离方法和饲养层,以期建立更优化的培养体系,并对优化培养体系长期培养的卵巢生殖干细胞进行功能鉴定。选取5日龄C57BL/6雌性乳鼠卵巢,机械法制备卵巢组织碎片后,分别采用传统两步酶法（胶原酶和胰蛋白酶）和改良两步酶法（胶原酶、DNA酶、透明质酸酶、分离酶Ⅱ和胰蛋白酶）分离卵巢生殖干细胞,差速贴壁法纯化后,观察不同酶消化方法对卵巢生殖干细胞数量的影响;将分离得到的卵巢生殖干细胞分别培养于小鼠胚胎成纤维细胞STO系[sandosinbred mice(SIM)embryo-derived thioguanine and ouabain-resistant]、多聚赖氨酸以及明胶3种不同的饲养层,观察卵巢生殖干细胞的生长增殖状态;将传至第6代的卵巢生殖干细胞用碱性磷酸酶检测法和免疫荧光法对卵巢生殖干细胞标志物MVH、Oct4、C-kit和增殖标记物Brdu进行鉴定。结果发现两种酶分离方法均可从卵巢中分离得到卵巢生殖干细胞,其中传统两步酶法获得的细胞经差速贴壁法纯...     

哺乳动物卵巢中生殖干细胞的研究历史与进展

对于出生后的哺乳动物卵巢中是否存在生殖干细胞以维持卵泡的更新一直争议不断,现就该领域的研究历史及最新进展进行综述.     

出生后小鼠卵巢可再生卵母细胞

传统的观点认为 ,女性和绝大多数雌性哺乳动物出生后其卵巢中的卵母细胞数目不再增加反而逐年减少。在绝经期前 ,除很少一部分卵母细胞发育成熟并完成排卵外 ,大部分是以细胞凋亡的形式消失于机体的不同生长阶段 ;绝经期后的卵巢则不具备排卵能力。最近 ,Tilly领导的研究小组在     

小鼠卵巢冷冻移植后卵泡发育和卵母细胞成熟的研究

本研究探讨了冷冻保存的1日龄小鼠卵巢异体异位移植后,其原始卵泡重新启动生长发育的能力。一日龄B6C2F．小鼠卵巢分离冷冻后置液氮中保存,保存1周。6个月后解冻,并将卵巢移植到8-12周龄B6C2F．受体鼠。肾脏包膜下,移植至少14d。每侧肾囊移植2枚卵巢的40只受体鼠中卵巢的回收率为45．00％（72／160）,而每侧。肾囊移植l枚卵巢的20只受体鼠的回收率为82．50％（33／40）。移植卵巢上卵泡的发育基本与体外自然生长鼠的卵巢卵泡发育情况一致。对卵巢移植19d的受体鼠用孕马血清促性腺激素（pregnant mare serum gonadotrophin,PMSG）处理后,从移植卵巢上发育成熟卵泡中获得的卵母细胞在MEM0c培养基中培养16-17h,有40．90％的卵母细胞发生生发泡破裂（germinal vesicle breakdown,GVBD）,其中89．02％的卵母细胞发育到第二次减数分裂中期（metaphaseⅡ,MⅡ）。将剩余的卵母细胞继续培养到20～21h,又有50．83％的卵母细胞发生生发泡破裂,但其中只有21．40％的卵母细胞能够发育到MII期。以上结果说明,小鼠早期卵巢经过冷冻．解冻并异体异位移植后,其原始卵泡能够重新启动生长发育,发育后的卵泡卵母细胞能够在体外培养成熟。这些结果意味着原始卵泡或卵巢冷冻一移植技术有可能充分利用雌性生殖细胞用于濒危动物保种、建立动物基因库和人类辅助生殖等。     

Intraovarian Transplantation of Female Germline Stem Cells Rescue Ovarian Function in Chemotherapy-Injured Ovaries

Early menopause and infertility often occur in female cancer patients after chemotherapy (CTx). For these patients, oocyte/embryo cryopreservation or ovarian tissue cryopreservation is the current modality for fertility preservation. However, the above methods are limited in the long-term protection of ovarian function, especially for fertility preservation (very few females with cancer have achieved pregnancy with cryopreserved ovarian tissue or eggs until now). In addition, the above methods are subject to their scope (females with no husband or prepubertal females with no mature oocytes). Thus, many females who suffer from cancers would not adopt the above methods pre- and post-CTx due to their uncertainty, safety and cost-effectiveness. Therefore, millions of women have achieved long-term survival after thorough CTx treatment and have desired to rescue their ovarian function and fertility with economic, durable and reliable methods. Recently, some studies showed that mice with infertility caused by CTx can produce normal offspring through intraovarian injection of exogenous female germline stem cells (FGSCs). Though exogenous FGSC can be derived from mice without immune rejection in the same strain, it is difficult to obtain human female germline stem cells (hFGSCs), and immune rejection could occur between different individuals. In this study, infertility in mice was caused by CTx, and the ability of FGSCs to restore ovarian function or even produce offspring was assessed. We had successfully isolated and purified the FGSCs from adult female mice two weeks after CTx. After infection with GFP-carrying virus, the FGSCs were transplanted into ovaries of mice with infertility caused by CTx. Finally, ovarian function was restored and the recipients produced offspring long-term. These findings showed that mice with CTx possessed FGSCs, restoring ovarian function and avoiding immune rejection from exogenous germline stem cells.     

Loss of CABLES1, a Cyclin-dependent Kinase-interacting Protein that Inhibits Cell Cycle Progression,Results in Germline Expansion at the Expense of Oocyte Quality in Adult Female Mice

Recent studies have shown that cell cycle inhibitors encoded by the Ink4a gene locus constrain the self-renewing activity of adult stem cells of the hematopoietic and nervous systems. Here we report that knockout (KO) of the Cables1 [cyclin-dependent kinase (CDK)-5 and ABL enzyme substrate 1] cell cycle-regulatory gene in mice has minimal to no effect on hematopoietic stem cell (HSC) dynamics. However, female Cables1-null mice exhibit a significant expansion of germ cell (oocyte) numbers throughout adulthood. This is accompanied by a dramatic elevation in the number of atretic immature oocytes within the ovaries and an increase in the incidence of degenerating oocytes retrieved following superovulation of CABLES1-deficient females. These outcomes are not observed in mice lacking p16^INK4a alone or both p16^INK4a and p19^ARF. These data support recent reports that adult female mice can generate new oocytes and follicles but the enhancement of postnatal oogenesis by Cables1 KO appears offset by a reduction in oocyte quality, as reflected by increased elimination of these additional germ cells via apoptosis. This work also reveals cell lineage specificity with respect to the role that specific CDK-interacting proteins play in restraining the activity of adult germline versus somatic stem cells.     

Dorsomorphin Promotes Survival and Germline Competence of Zebrafish Spermatogonial Stem Cells in Culture

Zebrafish spermatogonial cell cultures were established from Tg(piwil1:neo);Tg(piwil1:DsRed) transgenic fish using a zebrafish ovarian feeder cell line (OFC3) that was engineered to express zebrafish Lif, Fgf2 and Gdnf. Primary cultures, initiated from testes, were treated with G418 to eliminate the somatic cells and select for the piwil1:neo expressing spermatogonia. Addition of dorsomorphin, a Bmp type I receptor inhibitor, prolonged spermatogonial stem cell (SSC) survival in culture and enhanced germline transmission of the SSCs following transplantation into recipient larvae. In contrast, dorsomorphin inhibited the growth and survival of zebrafish female germline stem cells (FGSCs) in culture. In the presence of dorsomorphin, the spermatogonia continued to express the germ-cell markers dazl, dnd, nanos3, vasa and piwil1 and the spermatogonial markers plzf and sox17 for at least six weeks in culture. Transplantation experiments revealed that 6 week-old spermatogonial cell cultures maintained in the presence of dorsomorphin were able to successfully colonize the gonad in 18% of recipient larvae and produce functional gametes in the resulting adult chimeric fish. Germline transmission was not successful when the spermatogonia were cultured 6 weeks in the absence of dorsomorphin before transplantation. The results indicate that Bmp signaling is detrimental to SSCs but required for the survival of zebrafish FGSCs in culture. Manipulation of Bmp signaling could provide a strategy to optimize culture conditions of germline stem cells from other species.     

Oocyte generation in adult mammalian ovaries by putative germ cells in bone marrow and peripheral blood

It has been suggested that germline stem cells maintain oogenesis in postnatal mouse ovaries. Here we show that adult mouse ovaries rapidly generate hundreds of oocytes, despite a small premeiotic germ cell pool. In considering the possibility of an extragonadal source of germ cells, we show expression of germline markers in bone marrow (BM). Further, BM transplantation restores oocyte production in wild-type mice sterilized by chemotherapy, as well as in ataxia telangiectasia-mutated gene-deficient mice, which are otherwise incapable of making oocytes. Donor-derived oocytes are also observed in female mice following peripheral blood transplantation. Although the fertilizability and developmental competency of the BM and peripheral blood-derived oocytes remain to be established, their morphology, enclosure within follicles, and expression of germ-cell- and oocyte-specific markers collectively support that these cells are bona fide oocytes. These results identify BM as a potential source of germ cells that could sustain oocyte production in adulthood.     

Identification of oogonial stem cells in chicken ovary

ObjectivesOogonial stem cells (OSCs) are germ cells that can sustain neo‐oogenesis to replenish the pool of primary follicles in adult ovaries. In lower vertebrates, fresh oocytes are produced by numerous OSCs through mitosis and meiosis during each reproduction cycle, but the OSCs in adult mammals are rare. The birds have retained many conserved features and developed unique features of ovarian physiology during evolution, and the presence of OSCs within avian species remain unknown.Materials and MethodsIn this study, we investigated the existence and function of OSCs in adult chickens. The chicken OSCs were isolated and expanded in culture. We then used cell transplantation system to evaluate their potential for migration and differentiation in vivo.ResultsDDX4/SSEA1‐positive OSCs were identified in both the cortex and medulla of the adult chicken ovary. These putative OSCs undergo meiosis in the reproductively active ovary. Furthermore, the isolated OSCs were expanded in vitro for months and found to express germline markers similar to those of primordial germ cells. When transplanted into the bloodstream of recipient embryos, these OSCs efficiently migrated into developing gonads, initiated meiosis, and then derived oocytes in postnatal ovaries.ConclusionsThis study has confirmed the presence of functional OSCs in birds for the first time. The identification of chicken OSCs has great potential for improving egg laying and preserving endangered species.

The oogonial stem cells (OSCs) could support the formation of new oocytes in the adult ovary. The DDX4/SSEA1‐positive OSCs in chicken ovaries could be isolated and expanded in vitro while maintaining germline stemness. When transplanted into the developing ovaries, the chicken OSCs can proliferate and enter meiosis to produce oocytes. The chicken OSCs could offer new ways for improving egg laying performance and species conservation.     

Stella Regulates the Development of Female Germline Stem Cells by Modulating Chromatin Structure and DNA Methylation

Female germline stem cells (FGSCs) have the ability to self-renew and differentiate into oocytes. Stella, encoded by a maternal effect gene, plays an important role in oogenesis and early embryonic development. However, its function in FGSCs remains unclear. In this study, we showed that CRISPR/Cas9-mediated knockout of Stella promoted FGSC proliferation and reduced the level of genome-wide DNA methylation of FGSCs. Conversely, Stella overexpression led to the opposite results, and enhanced FGSC differentiation. We also performed an integrative analysis of chromatin immunoprecipitation followed by high-throughput sequencing (ChIP-seq), high-throughput genome-wide chromosome conformation capture (Hi-C), and use of our published epigenetic data. Results indicated that the binding sites of STELLA and active histones H3K4me3 and H3K27ac were enriched near the TAD boundaries. Hi-C analysis showed that Stella overexpression attenuated the interaction within TADs, and interestingly enhanced the TAD boundary strength in STELLA-associated regions. Taking these findings together, our study not only reveals the role of Stella in regulating DNA methylation and chromatin structure, but also provides a better understanding of FGSC development.     

Oogenesis in cultures derived from adult human ovaries

Ten years ago, we reported that in adult human females the ovarian surface epithelium (OSE) is a source of germ cells. Recently, we also demonstrated that new primary follicles are formed by assembly of oocytes with nests of primitive granulosa cells in the ovarian cortex. The components of the new primary follicles, primitive granulosa and germ cells, differentiated sequentially from the OSE, which arises from cytokeratin positive mesenchymal progenitor cells residing in the ovarian tunica albuginea. In the present study, we investigated the possibility that the oocytes and granulosa cells may differentiate in cultures derived from adult human ovaries. Cells were scrapped from the surface of ovaries and cultured for 5 to 6 days, in the presence or absence of estrogenic stimuli [phenol red (PhR)]. The OSE cells cultured in the medium without PhR differentiated into small (15 micron) cells of granulosa phenotype, and epithelial, neural, and mesenchymal type cells. In contrast, OSE cells cultured in the presence of PhR differentiated directly into large (180 micron) cells of the oocyte phenotype. Such cells exhibited germinal vesicle breakdown, expulsion of the polar body, and surface expression of zona pellucida proteins, i.e. characteristics of secondary oocytes. These in vitro studies confirm our in vivo observations that in adult human ovaries, the OSE is a bipotent source of oocytes and granulosa cells. Development of numerous mature oocytes from adult ovarian stem cells in vitro offers new strategies for the egg preservation, IVF utilization, and treatment of female infertility. In addition, other clinical applications aiming to utilize stem cells, and basic stem cell research as well, may employ totipotent embryonic stem cells developing from fertilized oocytes.     

Origin of germ cells and formation of new primary follicles in adult human ovaries

Recent reports indicate that functional mouse oocytes and sperm can be derived in vitro from somatic cell lines. We hypothesize that in adult human ovaries, mesenchymal cells in the tunica albuginea (TA) are bipotent progenitors with a commitment for both primitive granulosa and germ cells. We investigated ovaries of twelve adult women (mean age 32.8 ± 4.1 SD, range 27–38 years) by single, double, and triple color immunohistochemistry. We show that cytokeratin (CK)+ mesenchymal cells in ovarian TA differentiate into surface epithelium (SE) cells by a mesenchymal-epithelial transition. Segments of SE directly associated with ovarian cortex are overgrown by TA, forming solid epithelial cords, which fragment into small (20 micron) epithelial nests descending into the lower ovarian cortex, before assembling with zona pellucida (ZP)+ oocytes. Germ cells can originate from SE cells which cover the TA. Small (10 micron) germ-like cells showing PS1 meiotically expressed oocyte carbohydrate protein are derived from SE cells via asymmetric division. They show nuclear MAPK immunoexpression, subsequently divide symmetrically, and enter adjacent cortical vessels. During vascular transport, the putative germ cells increase to oocyte size, and are picked-up by epithelial nests associated with the vessels. During follicle formation, extensions of granulosa cells enter the oocyte cytoplasm, forming a single paranuclear CK+ Balbiani body supplying all the mitochondria of the oocyte. In the ovarian medulla, occasional vessels show an accumulation of ZP+ oocytes (25–30 microns) or their remnants, suggesting that some oocytes degenerate. In contrast to males, adult human female gonads do not preserve germline type stem cells. This study expands our previous observations on the formation of germ cells in adult human ovaries. Differentiation of primitive granulosa and germ cells from the bipotent mesenchymal cell precursors of TA in adult human ovaries represents a most sophisticated adaptive mechanism created during the evolution of female reproduction. Our data indicate that the pool of primary follicles in adult human ovaries does not represent a static but a dynamic population of differentiating and regressing structures. An essential mission of such follicular turnover might be elimination of spontaneous or environmentally induced genetic alterations of oocytes in resting primary follicles.     

Induction of primordial germ cells from mouse induced pluripotent stem cells derived from adult hepatocytes

Pluripotent stem cells can be established by various methods, but they share several cytological properties, including germ cell differentiation in vitro, independently of their origin. Although mouse induced pluripotent stem (iPS) cells can produce functional gametes in vivo, it is still unclear whether or not they have the ability to produce presumptive germ cells in vitro. Here, we show that mouse iPS cells derived from adult hepatocytes were able to differentiate into presumptive germ cells marked by mouse vasa homolog (Mvh) expression in feeder‐free or suspension cultures. Embryoid body (EB) formation from iPS cells also induced the formation of round‐shaped cells resembling immature oocytes. Mvh⁺ cells formed clumps by co‐aggregation with differentiation‐supporting cells, and increased expression of germ cell markers was detected in these cell aggregates. Differentiation culture of presumptive germ cells from iPS cells could provide a conventional system for facilitating our understanding of the mechanisms underlying direct reprogramming and germline competency. Mol. Reprod. Dev. 77: 802–811, 2010. © 2010 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.