缝隙连接与糖尿病

细胞间通讯方式可分为间接与直接通讯方式,以体循环远程分泌、旁分泌和自分泌方式完成的调节方式为间接通讯,而以细胞间隙连接为途径进行的细胞间直接的信息交流为直接通讯.细胞间隙连接又称缝隙连接,是普遍存在于人和动物组织中的一种细胞连接形式.近年有一系列研究表明缝隙连接胞间通道的异常与糖尿病及其并发症的发生、发展密切相关,本文将就有关这方面的研究进展作一综述.     

缝隙连接与糖尿病

细胞间通讯方式可分为间接与直接通讯方式,以体循环远程分泌、旁分泌和自分泌方式完成的调节方式为间接通讯,而以细胞间隙连接为途径进行的细胞间直接的信息交流为直接通讯。细胞间隙连接又称缝隙连接,是普遍存在于人和动物组织中的一种细胞连接形式。近年有一系列研究表明缝隙连接胞间通道的异常与糖尿病及其并发症的发生、发展密切相关,本文将就有关这方面的研究进展作一综述。     

胶质细胞的细胞间通讯

星型胶质细胞虽然没有动作电位,但是可以表达多种受体和离子通道,并且以细胞内钙波传递的方式来响应各类刺激。星型胶质细胞同样可以释放多种信号分子来介导细胞间的通讯。尤为特别的是,星型胶质细胞的钙波传播和突触功能的反馈调节都需要其释放ATP才得以完成。然而,星型胶质细胞释放ATP的途径和机理还有待研究。尽管人们已经在星型胶质细胞中发现了小囊泡和大致密核心囊泡的标记物,可是用以胞吐的囊泡究竟是什么还并不清楚。作者等近期的研究成果表明,FM染料——一种被成功应用于研究神经元和其他分泌型细胞囊泡循环的染料,可以特异地标记星型胶质细胞的溶酶体,并依不同程度的刺激表现出两种不同模式的钙离子依赖性胞吐：在较低强度刺激下（ATP,谷氨酸）发生部分胞吐,而在高强度刺激下（氰化钾）则发生完全胞吐。进一步研究表明,溶酶体中含有大量ATP,并且在部分胞吐时少量释放ATP,完全胞吐时大量释放ATP,同时释放溶酶体酶。选择性地裂解星型胶质细胞的溶酶体,发现ATP释放和钙波传播都消失了。总之,星型胶质细胞的溶酶体可以通过调节性胞吐对生理和病理条件下的细胞间信号传递产生重要意义。     

新型远距离细胞连接结构——膜纳米管

与细胞间讯息传递相关的细胞结构有紧密连接、黏附连接和缝隙连接,但它们都只能在紧密相连的细胞间发挥作用.最近,人们发现了一种能够介导距离较远的细胞间讯息传递的膜系结构,称之为隧道纳米管或膜纳米管.膜纳米管通过促进细胞通讯影响了细胞的生理和病理变化.膜纳米管结构、形成以及功能已有一些研究报道.然而,作为一种新型的细胞间的连接结构,还有很多未知值得深入探索.     

β淀粉样蛋白1-42对BV-2细胞产生一氧化氮功能的刺激作用

目的应用β淀粉样蛋白1-42(β-Amyloid,Aβ1-42)作用于小胶质细胞(microglia,MG),对MG产生一氧化氮(nitric oxide,NO)的作用进行研究.方法应用高度纯化的BV-2小胶质细胞作为体外小胶质细胞模型,测定加入Aβ1-42后细胞上清NO含量及细胞iNOS酶活力;Western blot法测定Aβ对BV-2细胞iNOS蛋白表达的影响,免疫细胞化学方法对iNOS蛋白的表达情况进行观察.结果 Aβ1-42可以刺激BV-2细胞产生NO、提高细胞iNOS酶活性、增加iNOS蛋白质表达,以上作用均具有时间及浓度依赖性.结论 Aβ1-42在体外可通过提高细胞iNOS酶活性、增加iNOS蛋白质表达而增加NO的分泌,为NO发挥神经元毒性作用创造了条件.     

红细胞诱导BV-2小胶质细胞制作脑出血吞噬模型的研究

目的:观察不同储存时间、不同比例的红细胞(RBC)与小鼠BV-2小胶质细胞共培养不同时间对BV-2吞噬RBC的影响。方法:将用阿氏液保存1天、7天、14天、21天、30天的小鼠RBC按照5:1、10:1、20:1、40:1的比例加入BV-2小胶质细胞中,共培养1 h、3 h、6 h、9 h,应用流式细胞术观察BV-2对于RBC的吞噬情况。结果:加入不同保存时间的RBC与BV-2小胶质细胞共培养均可见到吞噬情况,其中保存28天的效果最明显;加入不同比例的RBC与BV-2小胶质细胞共培养,均出现吞噬情况,其中40:1最明显;RBC与BV-2小胶质细胞共培养各时间点均可观察到吞噬情况,其中6小时最明显。结论:应用RBC诱导小鼠BV-2小胶质细胞制作大鼠脑出血体外模型,选择保存28天RBC与BV-2小胶质细胞的比例为40:1共培养6小时,此时BV-2小胶质细胞吞噬清除RBC的效果最明显。     

连接素37缺乏可致雌鼠不孕

连接素３７缺乏可致雌鼠不孕调节卵泡发育的信号及信号传导机制仍不清楚。新近的研究表明,由间隙连接通道承担的细胞间信号传导影响卵泡发育的诸方面。间隙连接是由连接素（ｃｏｎｎｅｘｉｎｓ）组成的细胞间通道。已发现的连接素已达１３种之多,主要介导相邻细胞间的连...     

γ-分泌酶抑制剂对LPS诱导的小胶质细胞分泌炎症因子的调控及机制

阿尔茨海默病(Alzheimer’s disease,AD)是一种进行性的脑内神经元退变性疾病,其中大多数与编码早老素的基因突变所导致的γ-分泌酶功能异常,小胶质细胞是阿尔茨海默病炎症反应中最主要的炎性细胞,实验以小鼠小胶质细胞系BV-2为研究对象,探究γ-分泌酶抑制后对细菌内毒素脂多糖(Lipopolysaccharides,LPS)诱导的炎症因子分泌的影响与分子机制。     

骨组织细胞Cx43形成的间隙连接及半通道研究进展

连接子蛋43（connexin 43,Cx43）是骨组织中主要的间隙连接（gap junction）蛋白和半通道（hemichannel）蛋白,由Cx43形成的间隙连接及半通道实现了骨组织细胞间的直接通讯。连接子蛋白对骨组织的正常发育、骨重建过程的建立与平衡是非常重要的。目前研究指出,Cx43不仅参与了骨组织的力学响应过程,也参与了二磷酸盐、甲状旁腺激素等药物对骨重建的调节过程。该文以骨组织细胞内信号传递途径的关键分子Cx43为对象,就其目前的研究现状作一综述。     

远距离细胞连接——膜纳米管的生物功能

细胞连接为细胞间信号交流提供了直接通道,在机体的生理病理过程中发挥重要作用。膜纳米管是普遍存在于细胞间的远距离连接结构,不仅可远距离传输多种信号分子,也可传输线粒体,还与缝隙连接等细胞连接协同传输信号。近年来,膜纳米管的研究受到越来越多的关注,关于膜纳米管与其他细胞间信号传递方式的异同及其生物学功能,也有不少研究进展。本文主要综述了近年关于膜纳米管形态结构的多样性、与其他信号传递方式的异同以及其生理和病理功能等方面的研究进展。     

ATP- and Gap Junction–dependent Intercellular Calcium Signaling in Osteoblastic Cells

Many cells coordinate their activities by transmitting rises in intracellular calcium from cell to cell. In nonexcitable cells, there are currently two models for intercellular calcium wave propagation, both of which involve release of inositol trisphosphate (IP₃)- sensitive intracellular calcium stores. In one model, IP₃ traverses gap junctions and initiates the release of intracellular calcium stores in neighboring cells. Alternatively, calcium waves may be mediated not by gap junctional communication, but rather by autocrine activity of secreted ATP on P₂ purinergic receptors. We studied mechanically induced calcium waves in two rat osteosarcoma cell lines that differ in the gap junction proteins they express, in their ability to pass microinjected dye from cell to cell, and in their expression of P2Y₂ (P_2U) purinergic receptors. ROS 17/2.8 cells, which express the gap junction protein connexin43 (Cx43), are well dye coupled, and lack P_2U receptors, transmitted slow gap junction-dependent calcium waves that did not require release of intracellular calcium stores. UMR 106-01 cells predominantly express the gap junction protein connexin 45 (Cx45), are poorly dye coupled, and express P_2U receptors; they propagated fast calcium waves that required release of intracellular calcium stores and activation of P_2U purinergic receptors, but not gap junctional communication. ROS/P_2U transfectants and UMR/Cx43 transfectants expressed both types of calcium waves. Gap junction–independent, ATP-dependent intercellular calcium waves were also seen in hamster tracheal epithelia cells. These studies demonstrate that activation of P_2U purinergic receptors can propagate intercellular calcium, and describe a novel Cx43-dependent mechanism for calcium wave propagation that does not require release of intracellular calcium stores by IP₃. These studies suggest that gap junction communication mediated by either Cx43 or Cx45 does not allow passage of IP₃ well enough to elicit release of intracellular calcium stores in neighboring cells.     

Unloading of intercellular tension induces the directional translocation of PKCα

The migration of endothelial cells (ECs) is closely associated with a Ca²⁺-dependent protein, protein kinase Cα (PKCα). The disruption of intercellular adhesion by single-cell wounding has been shown to induce the directional translocation of PKCα. We hypothesized that this translocation of PKCα is induced by mechanical stress, such as unloading of intercellular tension, or by intercellular communication, such as gap junction-mediated and paracrine signaling. In the current study, we found that the disruption of intercellular adhesion induced the directional translocation of PKCα even when gap junction-mediated and paracrine signaling were inhibited. Conversely, it did not occur when the mechanosensitive channel was inhibited. In addition, the strain field of substrate attributable to the disruption of intercellular adhesion tended to be larger at the areas corresponding with PKCα translocation. Recently, we found that a direct mechanical stimulus induced the accumulation of PKCα at the stimulus area, involving Ca ²⁺ influx from extracellular space. These results indicated that the unloading of intercellular tension induced directional translocation of PKCα, which required Ca ²⁺ influx from extracellular space. The results of this study indicate the involvement of PKCα in the Ca ²⁺ signaling pathway in response to mechanical stress in ECs.     

Propagation of fast and slow intercellular Ca(2+) waves in primary cultured arterial smooth muscle cells

Smooth muscle contraction is regulated by changes in cytosolic Ca²⁺ concentration ([Ca²⁺]_i). In response to stimulation, Ca²⁺ increase in a single cell can propagate to neighbouring cells through gap junctions, as intercellular Ca²⁺ waves. To investigate the mechanisms underlying Ca²⁺ wave propagation between smooth muscle cells, we used primary cultured rat mesenteric smooth muscle cells (pSMCs). Cells were aligned with the microcontact printing technique and a single pSMC was locally stimulated by mechanical stimulation or by microejection of KCl. Mechanical stimulation evoked two distinct Ca²⁺ waves: (1) a fast wave (2 mm/s) that propagated to all neighbouring cells, and (2) a slow wave (20 μm/s) that was spatially limited in propagation. KCl induced only fast Ca²⁺ waves of the same velocity as the mechanically induced fast waves. Inhibition of gap junctions, voltage-operated calcium channels, inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate (IP₃) and ryanodine receptors, shows that the fast wave was due to gap junction mediated membrane depolarization and subsequent Ca²⁺ influx through voltage-operated Ca²⁺ channels, whereas, the slow wave was due to Ca²⁺ release primarily through IP₃ receptors. Altogether, these results indicate that temporally and spatially distinct mechanisms allow intercellular communication between SMCs. In intact arteries this may allow fine tuning of vessel tone.     

Impaired gap junction formation and intercellular calcium signaling in urinary bladder cancer cells can be improved by Gö6976

PURPOSE: Calcium wave propagation and connexin 26, 32 and 43 expression were studied in normal and malignant urothelial cells. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Human urothelial cell cultures were established from tissue biopsies obtained from three healthy control persons and compared to human transitional cell carcinoma (TCC) cell line 5637. Fluo-3 was used to study intercellular calcium signaling in urothelial cells. The cells were stimulated mechanically in the presence of inhibitors of gap-junctional or ATP-mediated communication to determine which pathways are operative in intercellular calcium signaling. In addition, G?6976 was used to determine the effects of PKC alpha and betaI inhibition on intercellular calcium signaling. RESULTS: In normal urothelial cells, the primary pathway for intercellular calcium mediated cell signaling was gap junctional intercellular communication (GJIC), but the paracrine ATP-mediated signaling was also operative. In 5637 TCC cells, GJIC and ATP-mediated signaling routes were altered when compared to normal urothelial cells. More specifically, inhibition of GJIC resulted in a complete block of intercellular calcium signaling, while inhibition of ATP-mediated signaling decreased signal transduction in 5637 TCC cells. The results of the present study also demonstrated that connexin 26 was the most abundant gap junction plaque protein in cultured normal human urothelial cells and that it did not form gap junction plaques in 5637 TCC cell culture. Treatment with G?6976 induced gap junction plaque formation by connexin 26 in 5637 TCC cells. In addition, the exposure to G?6976 enhanced intercellular calcium mediated signaling in 5637 TCC cells, but not in normal cells. CONCLUSIONS: The results of the present study suggest that gap junctions play a major role in intercellular calcium signaling in urothelial cells. In addition, intercellular calcium signaling is altered in urinary bladder carcinoma cells, and it can be improved by PKC alpha and betaI inhibition. (Supplementary materials are available for this article. Go to the publisher's online edition of Cell Communication and Adhesion for the following free supplemental resources; Movie files of Fig. 2normal G?6976-, normal G?6976+, TCC G?6976-, TCC G?6976+ and image of Supplementary Figure 1).     

A novel form of cellular communication among thymic epithelial cells: intercellular calcium wave propagation

We here describe intercellular calcium waves as a novel form of cellular communication among thymic epithelial cells. We first characterized the mechanical induction of intercellular calcium waves in different thymic epithelial cell preparations: cortical 1-4C18 and medullary 3-10 thymic epithelial cell lines and primary cultures of thymic "nurse" cells. All thymic epithelial preparations responded with intercellular calcium wave propagation after mechanical stimulation. In general, the propagation efficacy of intercellular calcium waves in these cells was high, reaching 80-100% of the cells within a given confocal microscopic field, with a mean velocity of 6-10 µm/s and mean amplitude of 1.4- to 1.7-fold the basal calcium level. As evaluated by heptanol and suramin treatment, our results suggest the participation of both gap junctions and P2 receptors in the propagation of intercellular calcium waves in thymic nurse cells and the more prominent participation of gap junctions in thymic epithelial cell lines. Finally, in cocultures, the transmission of intercellular calcium wave was not observed between the mechanically stimulated thymic epithelial cell and adherent thymocytes, suggesting that intercellular calcium wave propagation is limited to thymic epithelial cells and does not affect the neighboring thymocytes. In conclusion, these data describe for the first time intercellular calcium waves in thymic epithelial cells and the participation of both gap junctions and P2 receptors in their propagation. gap junctions; connexin43; P2 receptors; intercellular communication     

PrP 106-126 Altered PrP mRNA gene expression in mouse microglia BV-2 Cells

Prion diseases are infectious and fatal neurodegenerative diseases. The pathogenic agent is an abnormal prion protein aggregate. Microglial activation in the centre nervous system is a characteristic feature of prion disease. In this study, we examined the effect of PrP 106–126 on PrP mRNA gene expression in Mouse microglia cells BV-2 by real-time quantitative PCR. PrP mRNA expression level was found to be significantly increased after 18 h exposure of BV-2 cells to PrP 106–126, with 3-fold increase after 18 h and 4.5-fold increase after 24 h and BV-2 cells proliferating occurred correspondingly. Our results provide the first in vitro evidence of the increase of PrP mRNA levels in microglial cells exposed to PrP 106–126, and indicate that microglial cells might play a critical role in prion pathogenesis.     

Mechanical Stimulation-induced Calcium Wave Propagation in Cell Monolayers: The Example of Bovine Corneal Endothelial Cells

Intercellular communication is essential for the coordination of physiological processes between cells in a variety of organs and tissues, including the brain, liver, retina, cochlea and vasculature. In experimental settings, intercellular Ca²⁺-waves can be elicited by applying a mechanical stimulus to a single cell. This leads to the release of the intracellular signaling molecules IP₃ and Ca²⁺ that initiate the propagation of the Ca²⁺-wave concentrically from the mechanically stimulated cell to the neighboring cells. The main molecular pathways that control intercellular Ca²⁺-wave propagation are provided by gap junction channels through the direct transfer of IP₃ and by hemichannels through the release of ATP. Identification and characterization of the properties and regulation of different connexin and pannexin isoforms as gap junction channels and hemichannels are allowed by the quantification of the spread of the intercellular Ca²⁺-wave, siRNA, and the use of inhibitors of gap junction channels and hemichannels. Here, we describe a method to measure intercellular Ca²⁺-wave in monolayers of primary corneal endothelial cells loaded with Fluo4-AM in response to a controlled and localized mechanical stimulus provoked by an acute, short-lasting deformation of the cell as a result of touching the cell membrane with a micromanipulator-controlled glass micropipette with a tip diameter of less than 1 μm. We also describe the isolation of primary bovine corneal endothelial cells and its use as model system to assess Cx43-hemichannel activity as the driven force for intercellular Ca²⁺-waves through the release of ATP. Finally, we discuss the use, advantages, limitations and alternatives of this method in the context of gap junction channel and hemichannel research.     

Changes of Gap and Tight Junctions during Differentiation of Human Nasal Epithelial Cells Using Primary Human Nasal Epithelial Cells and Primary Human Nasal Fibroblast Cells in a Noncontact Coculture System

The epithelium of upper respiratory tissues such as nasal mucosa forms a continuous barrier to a wide variety of exogenous antigens. The epithelial barrier function is regulated in large part by the intercellular junctions, referred to as gap and tight junctions. However, changes of gap and tight junctions during differentiation of human nasal epithelial (HNE) cells are still unclear. In the present study, to investigate changes of gap and tight junctions during differentiation of HNE cells in vitro, we used primary human HNE cells cocultured with primary human nasal fibroblast (HNF) cells in a noncontact system. In HNE cells cocultured with HNF cells for 2 weeks, numerous elongated cilia-like structures were observed compared to those without HNF cells. In the coculture, downregulation of Cx26 and upregulation of Cx30.3 and Cx31 were observed together with extensive gap junctional intercellular communication. Furthermore, expression of the tight junction proteins claudin-1, claudin-4, occludin and ZO-2 was increased. These results suggest that switching in expression of connexins and induction of tight junction proteins may be closely associated with differentiation of HNE cells in vitro and that differentiation of HNE cells requires unknown soluble factors secreted from HNF cells.     

Intercellular Bridge Mediates Ca2+ Signals between Micropatterned Cells via IP3 and Ca2+ Diffusion

Intercellular bridges are plasma continuities formed at the end of the cytokinesis process that facilitate intercellular mass transport between the two daughter cells. However, it remains largely unknown how the intercellular bridge mediates Ca²⁺ communication between postmitotic cells. In this work, we utilize BV-2 microglial cells planted on dumbbell-shaped micropatterned assemblies to resolve spatiotemporal characteristics of Ca²⁺ signal transfer over the intercellular bridges. With the use of such micropatterns, considerably longer and more regular intercellular bridges can be obtained than in conventional cell cultures. The initial Ca²⁺ signal is evoked by mechanical stimulation of one of the daughter cells. A considerable time delay is observed between the arrivals of passive Ca²⁺ diffusion and endogenous Ca²⁺ response in the intercellular-bridge-connected cell, indicating two different pathways of the Ca²⁺ communication. Extracellular Ca²⁺ and the paracrine pathway have practically no effect on the endogenous Ca²⁺ response, demonstrated by application of Ca²⁺-free medium, exogenous ATP, and P2Y₁₃ receptor antagonist. In contrast, the endoplasmic reticulum Ca²⁺-ATPase inhibitor thapsigargin and inositol trisphosphate (IP₃) receptor blocker 2-aminoethyl diphenylborate significantly inhibit the endogenous Ca²⁺ increase, which signifies involvement of IP₃-sensitive calcium store release. Notably, passive Ca²⁺ diffusion into the connected cell can clearly be detected when IP₃-sensitive calcium store release is abolished by 2-aminoethyl diphenylborate. Those observations prove that both passive Ca²⁺ diffusion and IP₃-mediated endogenous Ca²⁺ response contribute to the Ca²⁺ increase in intercellular-bridge-connected cells. Moreover, a simulation model agreed well with the experimental observations.     

Abscisic acid does not evoke calcium influx in murine primary microglia and immortalised murine microglial BV-2 and N9 cells

Brain microglia are resident macrophage-like cells representing the first and main form of active immune response during brain injury. Microglia-mediated inflammatory events in the brain are known to be associated with chronic degenerative diseases such as Multiple Sclerosis, Parkinson’s, or Alzheimer’s disease. Therefore, identification of mechanisms activating microglia is not only important in the understanding of microglia-mediated brain pathologies, but may also lead to the development of new anti-inflammatory drugs for the treatment of chronic neurodegenerative diseases. Recently, abscisic acid (ABA), a phytohormone regulating important physiological functions in higher plants, has been proposed to activate murine microglial cell line N9 through increased intracellular calcium. In the present study, we determined the response to ABA and its analogues from murine primary microglia and immortalized murine microglial cell line BV-2 and N9 cells. A Fura-2-acetoxymethyl ester (Fura-2AM)-based ratiometric calcium imaging and measurement technique was used to determine the intracellular calcium changes in these cells when treated with (−)-ABA, (+)-ABA, (−)-trans-ABA and (+)-trans-ABA. Both primary microglia and microglial cell lines (BV-2 and N9 cells) showed significant increase in intracellular calcium ([Ca²⁺]i) in response to treatment with ATP and ionomycine. However, ABAs failed to evoke dose- and time-dependent [Ca²⁺]i changes in mouse primary microglia, BV-2 and N9 cells. Together, these surprising findings demonstrate that, contrary to that reported in N9 cells [3], ABAs do not evoke intracellular calcium changes in primary microglia and microglial cell lines. The broad conclusion that ABA evokes [Ca²⁺]i in microglia requires more evidence and further careful examination.