Age at return marriage and timing of first birth in India's Uttar Pradesh and Kerala states

Abstract

The study investigates the relationship between age at marriage and the length of first birth interval in two states of India: Uttar Pradesh and Kerala. Life tables of first‐birth intervals and median first‐birth intervals are computed for several subgroups of the study population. Multivariate hazards modelling technique is used to study the net effect of age at marriage, controlling for a multiple of socioeconomic factors. The result shows that the average first‐birth interval varies by age at marriage and is much longer in Uttar Pradesh than in Kerala.     

Female autonomy as a contributing factor to women's HIV-related knowledge and behaviour in three culturally contrasting States in India

Factors contributing to India's vulnerability to the AIDS epidemic include pervasive poverty, low levels of education and high gender stratification. This study uses data collected in the 1998-99 National Family Health Survey-2 (NFHS-2) to investigate the relationship between aspects of women's autonomy and four measures of HIV-related knowledge and behaviour--awareness and knowledge of HIV/AIDS, condom awareness and condom use--in three culturally contrasting states in India: Kerala (n=2884), Karnataka (n=4357) and Uttar Pradesh (n=8981). The NFHS-2 is a nationally representative survey of India, with a sampling scheme that was designed such that each state sample can be generalized back to represent ever-married women aged 15-49 living in the state. Kerala scores highest in the four health outcome measures, followed by Karnataka and then Uttar Pradesh, but condom use is lowest in Karnataka. Kerala also leads in the four dimensions of autonomy examined and in socio-demographic status, followed again by Karnataka and Uttar Pradesh. Despite these observed differences, in all three states, women with greater autonomy as measured by this study were more likely to be knowledgeable about AIDS and condoms and to use condoms, after controlling for socio-demographic factors. These results concur with other studies focusing on women's autonomy and health outcomes around the world, and point to the importance of incorporating a gender-based approach to AIDS prevention programmes in India.     

Effects of the status of women on the first-birth interval in Indian urban society

The status of women, which is relative and multidimensional, has an important bearing on any long-term reduction in fertility. In Indian society, where cohabitation and childbearing are socially sanctioned only after marriage, the length of the first-birth interval affects the completed family size by influencing the spacing and childbearing pattern of a family. This study examines the influence of certain aspects of the status of married women--education, employment, role in family decision making, and age at marriage--along with three socioeconomic variables--per capita income of the family, social position of the household, and the caste system--on the duration of the first-birth interval in an urban Hindu society of the north-east Indian state of Assam. The data were analysed by applying life table and hazard regression techniques. The results indicate that a female's age at marriage, education, current age, role in decision making, and the per capita income of the household are the main covariates that strongly influence the length of the first-birth interval of Hindu females of urban Assam. Of all the covariates studied, a female's education appears to be a key mediating factor, through its influence on her probability of employment outside the home and thereby an earned income and on her role in family decision making. Unlike other Indian communities, the effect of the caste system does not have a significant effect on first-birth timing in this urban Hindu society.     

The distribution of consecutive closed birth intervals in females in Uttar Pradesh

Most studies of closed birth intervals are regarding their variation at specific orders among females. This paper attempts to study the nature of the distributions of consecutive closed birth intervals. Data from the Uttar Pradesh National Family Health Survey 1998-99 (NFHS-2) were analysed. It was found that, under certain assumptions, the postpartum amenorrhoea period and menstruating interval are negatively associated, indicating that socio-cultural factors are affecting the menstruating interval.     

Trends in consanguinity in South India

This study uses data from the 1992-93 National Family Health Survey to assess trends in consanguinity in the South Indian states of Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Kerala and Tamil Nadu. In Kerala, the frequency of consanguineous marriages is very low and one type of preferred marriage of the Dravidian marriage system uncle niece marriage--is conspicuously absent. In the other states of South India, consanguinity and the coefficient of inbreeding are high. While no change in consanguinity is observed during the past three to four decades in Karnataka, a definite decline is observed in Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu. Due to recent changes in the demographic and social situation in these states, this decline in consanguinity is likely to continue.     

Presence of Wolbachia endosymbionts in microfilariae of Wuchereria bancrofti (Spirurida: Onchocercidae) from different geographical regions in India

In view of the recent discovery of rickettsial endosymbionts, Wolbachia in lymphatic filarial parasites, Wuchereria bancrofti and Brugia malayi and subsequently of their vital role in the survival and development of the latter, antibiotics such as tetracycline are being suggested for the treatment of lymphatic filariasis, by way of eliminating the endosymbiont. But, it is essential to assess their presence in parasites from areas endemic for lymphatic filariasis before such a new control tool is employed. In the present communication, we report the detection of Wolbachia endosymbionts in microfilariae of W. bancrofti parasites collected from geographically distant locations of India, such as Pondicherry (Union Territory), Calicut (Kerala), Jagadalpur (Madhya Pradesh), Thirukoilur (TamilNadu), Chinnanergunam (TamilNadu), Rajahmundry (Andhra Pradesh), and Varanasi (Uttar Pradesh), using Wolbachia specific 16S rDNA polymerase chain reaction.     

Abortion index and mortality of offspring among women of different age, caste and population groups of north Indian Muslims

The Muslims of Aligarh city are predominantly Sunnis, although there are also a considerable number of Shias. Among the Sunnis, approximately a quarter belong to Syed, Sheikh, Moghal and Pathan groups, and three-quarters belong to various lower biradaris. In the present study, 304 women attending the Primary Health Centre of the J. N. Medical College and Hospital, Aligarh Muslim University, Uttar Pradesh, were surveyed and the following recorded among Muslim women of high-rank (Ashraf) and low-rank (Ajlaf) castes: incidence of marriage, age of the mother at the time of marriage, present age of the mother, abortions, still births, pre-reproductive mortality and overall mortality. The Ashraf are comprised of the Sheikh, Syed and Pathan, whereas the Ajlafs have Qureshi, Saifi and Ansari biradaris. Maternal age was scored as above and below 45 years in each biradari. Significant effects of maternal age were seen on mortality of offspring, whereas populations did not show consistent differences, except when Ashrafs and Ajlafs were considered separately. The results show higher mortality and abortions for various groups. This may be due to various biological and socio-cultural factors, including hidden inbreeding in the remote past.     

Determinants of nutritional status of pre-school children in India

The aim of this paper is to assess the spatial distribution of nutritional status of children of less than three years through Z-scores of weight-for-age, height-for-age and weight-for-height using data collected by the National Family Health Survey (NFHS-2, 1998-99), India. The nutritional status of pre-school children was regressed on different socio-demographic factors after eliminating the effect of age. The data show that there are gender differences and spatial variations in the nutritional status of children in India. Gender difference is not very pronounced and almost disappears when the effects of age and socio-demographic variables are removed. The spatial difference, especially the rural-urban difference, was found to be very large and decreased substantially when the effects of age and socioeconomic variables were removed. However, the differences were not close to zero. All the variables were found to affect significantly the nutritional status of children. However, the literacy of mothers did not affect height-for-age significantly. The weight-for-age and height-for-age scores showed a dismal picture of the health condition of children in almost all states in India. The worst affected states are Bihar, Madhya Pradesh, Orissa and Uttar Pradesh. Assam and Rajasthans are also lagging behind. Weight-for-height scores do not give a clear picture of state-wise variation. Goa, Kerala and Punjab are the three most developed states in India and also have the lowest percentages of underweight children according to the Z-scores. Along with these three states come the north-eastern states where women are well educated. Thus overall development, enhancement of level of education and low gender inequality are the key factors for improvement in the health status of Indian children.     

Neonatal mortality in the empowered action group states of India: trends and determinants

In India, the eight socioeconomically backward states of Bihar, Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, Madhya Pradesh, Orissa, Rajasthan, Uttaranchal and Uttar Pradesh, referred to as the Empowered Action Group (EAG) states, lag behind in the demographic transition and have the highest infant mortality rates in the country. Neonatal mortality constitutes about 60% of the total infant mortality in India and is highest in the EAG states. This study assesses the levels and trends in neonatal mortality in the EAG states and examines the impact of bio-demographic compared with health care determinants on neonatal mortality. Data from India's Sample Registration System (SRS) and National Family and Health Survey (NFHS-2, 1998-99) are used. Cox proportional hazard models are applied to estimate adjusted neonatal mortality rates by health care, bio-demographic and socioeconomic determinants. Variations in neonatal mortality by these determinants suggest that universal coverage of all pregnant women with full antenatal care, providing assistance at delivery and postnatal care including emergency care are critical inputs for achieving a reduction in neonatal mortality. Health interventions are also required that focus on curtailing the high risk of neonatal deaths arising from the mothers' younger age at childbirth, low birth weight of children and higher order births with short birth intervals.     

The impact of labor-saving technology on first birth intervals in rural Ethiopia

Across the developing world labor-saving technologies introduce considerable savings in the time and energy that women allocate to work. Hormonal studies on natural fertility populations indicate that such a reduction in energetic expenditure (rather than improved nutritional status alone) can lead to increased ovarian function. Other qualitative studies have highlighted a link between labor-saving technology and behavioral changes affecting subsequent age at marriage, which may affect fertility. This biodemographic study was designed to investigate whether these physiological and behavioral changes affect fertility at a population level by focusing on a recent water development scheme in Southern Ethiopia. The demographic consequences of a reduction in women's workload following the installation of water points, specifically the variation in length of first birth interval (time lapsed between marriage and first birth), are investigated. First birth interval length is closely associated with lifetime fertility in populations that do not practice contraception, longer intervals being associated with lower fertility. Using life tables and multivariate hazard modeling techniques a number of significant predictors of first birth interval length are identified. Covariates such as age at marriage, season of marriage, village ecology, and access to improved water supply have significant effects on variation in first birth intervals. When entered into models as a time-varying covariate, access to a water tap stand is associated with an immediate reduction in length of first birth intervals.     

Nonmetric cranial variation and biological distances between samples of six nontribal populations of India

Sixty-nine nonmetrical morphological variants of the cranium have been studied in six samples of non-tribal, state populations in India, and their incidence reported. Using C.A.B. Smith’s angular transformation of frequencies, the multivariate Thetasquare distances and their respective standard deviations have been presented. On the basis of nonmetrical cranial variation, it is clear that the samples from Uttar Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh and Bihar are closer to each other but distant from Madhya Pradesh, Karnataka and Maharashtra. On the other hand, Karnataka and Maharashtra samples are quite close to each other and both, in turn, are comparatively closer to Madhya Pradesh than to Uttar Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh and Bihar. Madhya Pradesh sample emerges as the most divergent group among the six population samples studied. This, in general, is in conformity with the picture that emerges from various analysis of morphometric and other biological data on various populations of India.     

Diversity in Kodo millet,Paspalum scrobiculatum

Paspalum scrobiculatum is widely distributed in damp habitats across the Old World tropics. It is harvested as a wild cereal in west Africa and in India.The species was domesticated in India some 3,000 yr ago. It is grown in India from Kerala and Tamil Nadu in the south, to Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh and West Bengal in the north. Kodo millet is variable but lacks racial differentiation. The species was apparently domesticated across its range of present-day cultivation. HybridizationwithwildP. scrobiculatum , which commonly invades fields of kodo millet, obscures racial differentiation. Weedy kodo is harvested with the crop, making it difficult to distinguish wild and cultivated complexes ofP. scrobiculatum. Wild, weed and cultivated kinds merge in all characters studied.     

Pre-Caucasoid and Caucasoid genetic features of the Indian population,revealed by mtDNA polymorphisms.

About 70 individuals from Punjab were examined for some mtDNA polymorphisms, namely, the RFLPs of the six classical enzymes (HpaI, BamHI, HaeII, MspI, AvaII, and Hin-cII) and for the sites AluI(7,025), DdeI(10,394), and AluI(10,397). The AluI(7,025) polymorphic site was also investigated in 96 Indians from Uttar Pradesh and Andhra Pradesh and in 163 Mediterranean Caucasoids. Moreover, 30 Indian DdeI(10,394)Alu(10,397) (++) mtDNAs were typed by the "high-resolution restriction analysis" with 14 endonucleases to estimate their divergence time. The results obtained are the following: (1) The RFLPs analysis has displayed some Caucasoid types as in Indians of Uttar Pradesh; (2) the AluI(7,025) (-) allele, which defines the most frequent Caucasoid-specific lineage (haplogroup H), ranges from 18% to 45% in the Mediterranean Caucasoids, whereas it has shown low frequencies in Punjab (6.0%) and in Uttar Pradesh (1.8%) and was not found in Andhra Pradesh; (3) the DdeI(lO,394)AluI(10,397) (+ +) haplotype, which although previously was considered an East Asian marker (haplogroup M) and was found very frequently in India, is also frequent in Punjab (27%); this frequency is, however, much lower than in Uttar Pradesh (49%) and in Andhra Pradesh (74%), and a gradient decreasing from south to north is therefore observed; (4) the divergence time of the Indian DdeI(10,394)AluI(10,397) (++) mtDNAs has been estimated to be 30,250-60,500 years, a value that is compatible with that of the homologous East Asian lineage. These results strongly support the hypothesis that the DdeI(10,394)AluI(10,397) (++) haplotype predated the Indo-European invasion and probably the split between proto-Indians and proto-Orientals. Its frequency cline well reflects the major influence of Indo-Europeans in the north and in the center of India.     

Starting, spacing and stopping in the reproductive histories of outer Hebridean families.

Maternal ages at the first maternity (starting), at the last maternity (stopping) and the lengths of intervals between maternities (spacing) have been studied in the Outer Hebridean islands of Harris and Barra for births between the years of 1855 and 1990, a period during which a considerable 'fertility transition' occurred. There was a tendency in each island for increases with time in the ages at starting among less-fecund women (although after 1936 starting ages declined), and highly significant heterogeneity of covariance: adjusted means dependent on the total numbers of maternities experienced. The same result was seen for the ages at stopping. Lengths of reproductive life (the difference between ages at starting and stopping) rose to 1876-1895, and then fell, apart from a short-lived rise in Barra during 1956-1975, possibly due to the papal encyclical Humaneae Vitae. Intervals between marriage and first maternity and between successive maternities were studied by hazard function survival analysis. The marriage first birth interval remained very constant, unaffected by total maternities. The father's occupation and the mother's age at first maternity showed no significant relationships. In Barra there was a weak negative relationship with the date of the marriage. For intervals between maternities in both islands, total maternities and the death of a previous infant were associated with shorter, and birth order with longer intervals. In Harris, there were tendencies for intervals to be consistently long or short in families, and for the age of the mother and date at first maternity to be negatively related to the length of the interval. In Barra, a previous multiple birth was followed by a longer interval. The date of the previous maternity, father's occupation, maternal age at the previous maternity, the sex of the previous child, and the duration of the marriage appeared to have no influence on maternity intervals. Evidence for an effect of economic deprivation during the 19th century on the variables considered was equivocal. During the 20th century, it is suggested that economic depression during the inter-war years, the spread of contraception, and improvements in health care may have acted 'synergistically' to produce the lower ages of childbearing and the shortening of maternity intervals and reproductive lives.     

New estimates of intergenerational time intervals for the calculation of age and origins of mutations

Intergenerational time intervals are frequently used in human population-genetics studies concerned with the ages and origins of mutations. In most cases, mean intervals of 20 or 25 years are used, regardless of the demographic characteristics of the population under study. Although these characteristics may vary from prehistoric to historical times, we suggest that this value is probably too low, and that the ages of some mutations may have been underestimated. Analyses were performed by using the BALSAC Population Register (Quebec, Canada), from which several intergenerational comparisons can be made. Family reconstitutions were used to measure interval lengths and variations in descending lineages. Various parameters were considered, such as spouse age at marriage, parental age, and reproduction levels. Mother-child and father-child intervals were compared. Intergenerational male and female intervals were also analyzed in 100 extended ascending genealogies. Results showed that a mean value of 30 years is a better estimate of intergenerational intervals than 20 or 25 years. As marked differences between male and female interval length were observed, specific values are proposed for mtDNA, autosomal, X-chromosomal, and Y-chromosomal loci. The applicability of these results for age estimates of mutations is discussed.     

Age at menarche among the Bhotias of Mana Valley

The mean menarcheal age of the Bhotia girls of Mana Valley (Uttar Pradesh) has been found to be 16.38 +/- 1.53 years, which is the highest value so far reported from Indian populations. It is observed that altitude and nutritional status have a great bearing on the onset of menarche. The results obtained are compared with those from other Indian populations.     

The effects of high altitude on age at menarche and menopause

The age at menarche and menopause of three groups of Bhotia females living at high altitude, Himalayan region — Uttar Pradesh, North India, were studied. The Johari Bhotia women had earliest menarche (¯X=15.1±1.1 years) as compared to Rang Bhotias, settled (¯X=15.6±0.9 years) and Rang Bhotias, migratory (¯X=16.0±1.0 years). The differences between all these three groups for age at menarche were significant. A trend towards increase in age at menarche with an increase in altitude has been observed, but the total fertility period in the three groups remained similar as early menarche has been found to be associated with early onset of menopause and late menarche with late menopause.     

Non-metric variation of the skull in samples of four Indian populations

Four skeletal samples from the states of Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, and Andhra Pradesh in India are compared using cranial non-metric traits. The skeletal “epigenetic” distances correspond with the geographic pattern of separation, also demonstrating variable correspondence with known genetic relationships of the living populations.     

Biodegradation of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in soil around Mathura oil refinery,India

Six polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons [naphthalene, anthracene, phenanthrene, pyrene, chrysene and benzo(a)-pyrene] were detected in soil receiving effluents from an oil refinery. Biodegradation studies revealed a time-dependent disappearance of these polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons when they were added to soil samples: naphthalene disappeared completely in 60 days, whereas phenanthrene, anthracene, pyrene, chrysene and benzo(a)pyrene decreased by 87%, 34%, 21%, 5% and 40%, respectively, in 120 days.B.T. Ashok and J. Musarrat were and S. Saxena is with the Interdisciplinary Biotechnology Unit, A.M.U., Aligarh-202002, Uttar Pradesh, India. K.P. Singh is with the Environmental Chemistry Section, Industrial Toxicology Research Centre, M.G. Road, Lucknow-226001, Uttar Pradesh, India. B.T. Ashok is now with the Department of Biochemistry, J.N. Medical College, A.M.U., Aligarh-202002, Uttar Pradesh, India. J. Musarrat is now with the Department of Radiology and Blochemistry Program. The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH 43210, USA.     

Cross-cultural dimensions of breastfeeding practices and abstinence: Evidence from Uttar Pradesh and Tamilnadu, India

Summary and Conclusion The analysis contained in this paper brings out very clearly that the practice of breastfeeding and abstinence in the two major states of India: Uttar Pradesh and Tamilnadu are highly related to socio-cultural factors and changes in generational gaps. The findings reveal that literate, non-Hindu, and rich (high SLI) women have shorter breastfeeding durations than illiterates, Hindus, and poor (low SLI) women of Uttar Pradesh and Tamilnadu. In addition, the breastfeeding practice in Uttar Pradesh is influenced by residence background and generational age-gaps. The role of socio-cultural factors in influencing post-partum sexual abstinence period has been found to be significantly important through the variables; residence background, generational age-gaps, religion and working status of women. The results reveal that urban women, of younger cohorts (below 30 years), non-Hindu, and non-working women have shorter abstinence periods compared to rural women, of older cohorts (above 30 years), Hindus, and working women in both the states. The findings from this analysis suggest that apart from modernization process, defined in terms of higher literacy levels, higher developmental and urbanization levels, the changing perceptions and attitude towards lactational practices over the generation has significant dent on shortening of breastfeeding durations and abstinence periods. Thus, the study support the hypothesis that the process of modernization defined in terms of improvement in level of education, family income, urbanization tends to shorten the period of breastfeeding and abstinence, and consequently, the post-partum infecundability is reduced. Such reductions in the infertile periods can be expected to contribute to an increase in natural fertility levels of the population and also on the observed fertility levels, if not counter balanced by the fertility reducing effects of contraception.