Gender differences in fat patterning in children living in Ankara

Body composition is an excellent indicator for assessing obesity and nutritional status of both individuals and populations. Youth obesity has important health and social implications, because a large proportion of adult obesity has its origin in childhood. Numerous studies report that adverse levels of cardiovascular diseases risk factors are associated with adiposity in children. Concerning the Turkish population there is up to now only limited information with regard to adiposity in children. The aim of this study was therefore to determine the anthropometric and body composition characteristics and to investigate sex differences in fat patterning including fat distribution in a group of children living in Ankara. The present study evaluated the body composition of 332 boys and 269 girls aged between 8 and 11 years, attending public schools. It was carried out by a cross-sectional study and was focused on that anthropometric variables, which reflect body fat and fat-free mass. Anthropometric measurements including height, weight, triceps and subscapular skinfolds thickness were carried out on these children. The body mass index (BMI) was also calculated. The measurements were used to estimate the two-compartment model of body composition: fat-free mass (FFM) and body fat (BF) from skinfold equations. The mean fat percentage in boys is highest at 11 years (16.8%) and lowest at 10 years (15.6%). In girls these figures come to 18.2% and 17.1%, respectively. Girls of these age groups have a significantly larger percentage of body fat and skinfold thickness. At this young age there is therefore clear evidence of sexual dimorphism in fat patterning, as girls are showing a greater subcutaneous adiposity, which is mainly contributed by the triceps fat. The body fat (kg) increases in both sexes all over the investigated age groups. The Pearson correlation matrix showed a high significant relation between the anthropometric measurements (p < 0.01). The present study confirms the findings that sexual dimorphism of fat patterning in children is to be seen in the age of 8 - 11 years. It furthermore presents basic data of body composition, which could serve as reference data in other studies on the Turkish population.     

A multivariate analysis of fatness and relative fat patterning.

Skinfold measurements (triceps, subscapular, suprailiac and medial calf) in four samples (376 boys, 352 girs, 338 men and 380 women from rural Colombia) were subjected to principal components analysis to identify components of obesity and relative fat patterning. Three components emerged which were similar in the four samples: a first component of fatness explaining 70-80% of the variance and two fat pattern components each explaining 10-15% of the variance: trunk-extremity and upper-lower body. Fatness and the trunk-extremity pattern components changed with age in children (7-12 years), but none of the components changed with age in adults (25-60+). The fatter tended to be more patterned in both age groups. Canonical correlation analysis revealed that socioeconomic status was more related to fatness than to patterning. With the exception of brothers, all first degree relatives (sib, parent-off-spring) and spouses were correlated in fatness. Some of the correlations between relatives--usually sibs, but not spouses--were also significant for the pattern components, suggesting a genetic basis for the known stability of this characteristic (Garn, '55a). Principal components analysis is a useful multivariate alternative for quantitative studies of anthropometric patterning.     

Principal components analysis of physical growth in savannah baboons

Morphometric data collected from 118 male and 169 female savannah baboons (Papio cynocephalus anubis) aged between birth and 5.5 years were analyzed to describe the morphology and physical growth of this species. Measurements included weight, crown-rump length, triceps circumference, and skinfolds at the neck, subscapular, suprailiac, and triceps anatomical sites. Principal components analyses were applied to the data to provide multivariate assessments of morphological patterning among the variables. These analyses resulted in the extraction of two unrotated orthogonal components that accounted for 88% of the overall sample variation. The first component accounted for 77% of the variation and represents an axis of overall body size. The second component represents an axis of shape variation that contrasts body size with fat patterning, and was interpreted as a measure of body leanness. Individual component scores were computed for determining age, gender, and age-by-gender interaction effects. Both components were found to be age dependent for both genders. Males and females shared similar age patterning along the two components; however, gender differences did occur in patterning along the two components; however, gender differences did occur in respect to leanness. The multivariate measure of overall body size increased for both genders similarly with advancing age. Age patterning along the leanness component was described as a decrease from birth to 1 year, followed by an increase in leanness in older ages. Females had a delayed and significantly less intense increase in leanness relative to males.     

Income, birth order, siblings, and anthropometry

The purpose of the present cross-sectional study was to examine the relationship and effect of monthly household income, birth order, and number of siblings on adult body dimensions, adiposity index, and body composition among adult Bengali females. One hundred seventy-one adult Bengali females, age 20.35 +/- 1.51 years (mean +/- SD; range: 18-21 years) from Kolkata (formerly Calcutta) were studied. Anthropometric measures (weight, height, waist circumference, hip circumference, and triceps, biceps, subscapular, suprailiac, and medial calf skinfold thicknesses) were taken from all participants using standard protocols. BMI and log10 of the sum of the five skinfold thicknesses were computed subsequently. Percentage of body fat was estimated from the triceps skinfold thickness following the equation of Durnin and Womersley (1974), and fat mass was then calculated. Results of the correlation analysis revealed that monthly household income had significant (p < 0.05) positive association with all anthropometric variables. Birth order and number of siblings showed significant (p < 0.05) inverse association. The correlation of monthly household income with anthropometric variables was much stronger for number of siblings and birth order. The results of the analysis of variance showed that monthly household income, birth order, and number of siblings (tertiles used to categorize all variables) had significant effects (p < 0.05) on anthropometric variables, indicating differences in adult body dimensions, the adiposity index, and body composition in relation to income, birth order, and number of siblings.     

Fat patterning in Papua New Guineans: effects of age, sex and acculturation

For the renewed interest in fat patterning to be fruitful, more information on the biology of fat patterning, particularly normative data are required. Nine skinfold thicknesses were measured in 2312 coastal and highland Papua New Guineans of all ages undergoing acculturation. Principal component analysis of the skinfold data revealed components of fatness and fat patterning. First component scores were typical of the changes in fatness with age and the sex differences expected in these populations. Second component scores of limb-trunk fat patterning showed marked changes with age in both sexes but they stabilised in adulthood. This pattern seemed more affected by maturity although it is usually thought to be a sex-specific pattern. The third component, upper-lower body patterning, was more sexually dimorphic in adults. Marked differences were not observed between the two communities but over a 15-year period fatness levels increased slightly and subcutaneous fat tended to be deposited more centrally.     

Morphological differences of elite Croatian track-and-field athletes

In this study we present the morphological characteristics of 54 Croatian national level track-and-field athletes. 21 anthropometric body measures were taken on a sample of 15 sprinters (S), 16 endurance sprinters (S4), 10 middle-distance runners (MD) and 13 long-distance runners (LD). Body fat percentage, body mass index and somatotype were also calculated. Canonical discriminative analysis showed significant difference between the athletes of various running events, in the measures of body volume and body fat, while no significant difference was found in the variables of longitudinal and transversal dimensions of the skeleton. ANOVA and Student t-test for independent samples showed statistically significantly higher thigh and lower leg circumference in sprinters, as well as greater upper arm skinfold in middle-distance runners. The mesomorphic component is a dominant characteristic of somatotype of the runners in all events, whereas the ectomorphic component is the least marked.     

Relationship between anthropometric measures and body composition among Muslim females of West Bengal, India

The human body composition is assessed to determine percent body fat (PBF), fat mass (FM), and lean body mass or fat free mass (FFM). The topological distribution of body fat has been the subject of many studies in the world and India. To the best of our knowledge the present paper is the first report on the body composition in terms of PBF and FM, and their relationship with anthropometric measures in Muslim females in India. The present study examines anthropometric measurements and their relationship with the body composition among Muslim females of West Bengal, India. A cross-sectional study of 100 female, Muslim students of Howrah and Kolkata was undertaken to compare the relationships of biceps and triceps skinfold, waist, hip and upper arm circumference, waist hip ratio and conicity index with their body composition variables (PBF and FM). All anthropometric measures displayed significant (p < 0.05) correlation with body composition measures. The triceps skinfold, however, demonstrated a significant correlation with PBF (r = 0.90) and FM (r = 0.93). The greatest amount of variation of PBF (81.3 %) and FM (89.2 %) was explained by the triceps skinfold. In addition, a considerable amount of variation of PBF (72.8 %) and FM (86.0 %) was explained by the mid upper arm circumference. In conclusion, the present study displays a tendency of regional adiposity in the upper arm, triceps skinfold and mid upper arm circumference are much more strongly associated with body fat.     

Pregnancy of adult caribou (Rangifer tarandus): evidence for lactational infertility

To examine the relations between pregnancy, body condition, and lactation, 106 adult female caribou Rangifer tarandus granti ) of the Porcupine Herd were captured, weighed, measured, and scored for body condition in November 1990–1992. Blood samples were drawn for determination of pregnancy, and body fat content (kg) was estimated from the product of body weight and the body-condition score. Pregnant females were significantly fatter and heavier than non-pregnant females, and non- lactating females were significantly fatter, but no heavier, than lactating caribou. Probability of pregnancy was positively correlated with body weight and fat content, but prediction of pregnancy was improved when multiple independent variables, including skeletal dimensions and lactation status, were included in logistic models. Non-lactating females were more fertile than lactating females at a particular body weight and metatarsus length; but, at the same fatness, they were not more fertile than females that had lactated through the summer and were ceasing lactation in November. However, females that were extending lactation in November were least fertile, and this reduction of fertility was not explained by differences in body condition or skeletal dimensions. We suggest that the extended lactation group is exhibiting lactational infertility. Finally, unexplained differences in the relation between pregnancy rate and body condition exist among years, suggesting that interannual patterns in the nutrition and ecology of caribou affect the physiological relation between pregnancy and body condition.     

Body dimensions and thyroid hormone levels in premenopausal and postmenopausal women from Austria

Correlations between thyroid hormone levels and body dimensions were investigated in a group of 124 premenopausal (ages 16–40 years) and 142 postmenopausal (ages 38–61 years) women from Vienna, Austria. Twenty-nine absolute body dimensions and thirteen anthropometric indices were correlated with the serum levels of thyroxine, triiodothyronine, thyroid-stimulating hormone, and thyroid-hormone-binding globulin as well as three hormone ratios (T3/T4, T4/TSH, T3/TSH). All hormones exhibited statistically significant correlations with 24 anthropometric variables and 11 indices. The correlations between thyroxine and triiodothyronine levels and the body measurements were predominantly positive in both proband groups. Higher thyroid hormone levels were associated positively with body dimensions, especially with the amount of subcutaneous fat tissue, in adult females independently of their menstrual status. The direction of the correlations between thyroid-stimulating hormone and body measures as well as anthropometric indices differed between the premenopausal and the postmenopausal women. While in premenopausal women mainly positive correlations between anthropometric characters and the level of thyroid stimulating hormone occur, in postmenopausal women most of these correlations are negative. This is probably due to the decrease of thyroid-stimulating hormone levels with increasing age, as well as with changes in body shape during the climacteric and after the menopause. © 1994 Wiley-Liss, Inc.     

Abdominal fat and metabolic risk in obese children and adolescents

The aim of this study was to investigate fat distribution, mainly abdominal fat, and its relationship with metabolic risk variables in a group of 126 children and adolescents (60 males and 66 females) aged 5.0 to 14.9. According to IOTF criteria, 46 were classified as normal weight, 28 overweight and 52 obese. Weight, height, waist (WC) and hip circumferences were measured. The body mass index (BMI) was calculated. Total body fat, trunkal and abdominal fat were also assessed by dual energy x-ray absorptiometry (DXA). Glucose, insulin, HDL-Cholesterol, triglycerides (TG), ferritine, homocystein and C-reactive protein (CRP) were measured. Obesity status was related with insulin concentrations, CRP, TG and HDL. Obese patients had higher abdominal fat and higher CRP values than overweight and normal subjects. All markers of central body adiposity were related with insulin and lipid metabolism; however, they were not related with homocystein or ferritin. A simple anthropometric measurement, like waist circumference, seems to be a good predictor of the majority of the obesity related metabolic risk variables.     

Dermatoglyphic and anthropometric relationships within the I?upiat (Eskimo) hand

On the basis of earlier findings with Easter Islanders suggesting a positive correlation between dermatoglyphic variables and hand anthropometric measurements, the present study was designed to determine if such a relationship could be generalized to another population, namely, I?upiat (Eskimo). Since some dermatoglyphic and anthropometric variables were available for both sides of the body, the extension of this study to explore the question of asymmetry was also possible. The I?upiat sample numbered 142 male and 176 female adult inhabitants of five Alaskan North Slope communities. The major findings of this study included, for males, significant negative correlations between left arm length and digital ridge counts and positive relationships between the palmar variable of axial index and hand length on both hands. For females, the hand breadth/length index was negatively related to most of the digital variables. Very little definitive information regarding the relationship of the asymmetry variables between the two types of measures was ascertained.     

Body composition and fat distribution pattern of urban elderly females, Delhi, India

The present study was conducted on females (n = 279) in the age range of 51-89 year, living in the urban dwellings of Delhi, India. Another group of 21-25 years old young adult females was taken as a control group. A total of 14 anthropometric measurements were taken: stature, sitting height, weight, skinfold thickness at nine different sites over the body and body girths such as upper arm, waist and hip circumference. Indices like body mass index, grand mean thickness, waist-hip ratio were computed to assess the body composition. Fat profile and responsiveness of different skinfold sites towards fat accumulation were studied to find out the regional fat distribution with advancing age. Redistribution of body fat was found to take place with increasing age. A relative preponderance of upper body fat was visible among elderly subjects. However, a clear reverse trend was observed in the young control group females. Significant differences were observed with regards to the body composition and fat profile between young adult females and test group females. Abdomen and the sub-scapular area were reported to be the most sensitive sites for fat deposition as the age advanced. The stature and sitting height showed significant decline with age. All the indices of adiposity i.e. grand mean thickness, waist-hip ratio and body mass index revealed significant changes in elderly females when compared with young adult control group females.     

Physiological and anthropometric characteristics of young soccer players according to their playing position: relevance for the selection process

The aim of this study was to establish the anthropometric and physiological profiles of young nonelite soccer players according to their playing position, and to determine their relevance for the selection process. Two hundred forty-one male soccer players who were members of the Getxo Arenas Club (Bizkaia) participated in this study. Players, age 17.31 (+/- 2.64) years, range 14-21 years, were classified into the following groups: forwards (n = 56), midfielders (n = 79), defenders (n = 77), and goalkeepers (n = 29). Anthropometric variables of participants (height, weight, body mass index, 6 skinfolds, 4 diameters, and 3 perimeters) were measured. Also, their somatotype and body composition (weights and percentages of fat, bone, and muscle) were calculated. Participants performed the Astrand test to estimate their absolute and relative VO2max, an endurance test, sprint tests (30 meters flat and 30 meters with 10 cones) and 3 jump tests (squat jump, counter movement jump and drop jump). Forwards were the leanest, presenting the highest percentage of muscle. They were the best performers in all the physiological tests, including endurance, velocity, agility, and power. In contrast, goalkeepers were found to be the tallest and the heaviest players. They also had the largest fat skinfolds and the highest fat percentage, but their aerobic capacity was the lowest. In the selection process, agility and the jump tests were the most discriminating for forwards. In contrast, agility, height, and endurance were the key factors for midfielders. The defenders group was characterized by a lower quantity of fat. Thus, we may conclude that anthropometric and physiological differences exist among soccer players who play in different positions. These differences fit with their different workload in a game. Therefore, training programs should include specific sessions for each positional role.     

Anthropometric correlates of human anger

The recalibrational theory of human anger predicts positive correlations between aggressive formidability and anger levels in males, and between physical attractiveness and anger levels in females. We tested these predictions by using a three-dimensional body scanner to collect anthropometric data about male aggressive formidability (measures of upper body muscularity and leg–body ratio) and female bodily attractiveness (waist–hip ratio, body mass index, overall body shape femininity, and several other measures). Predictions were partially supported: in males, two of three anger measures correlated significantly positively with several muscularity measures; in females, self-perceived attractiveness correlated significantly positively with two anger measures. However, most of these significant results were observed only after excluding from the sample 27 participants who were older than undergraduate age, leaving a subsample of 40 males and 51 females. Evidence for relationships between anthropometric attractiveness indicators and anger measures was weak, but there was some evidence for relationships between anthropometric attractiveness indicators and self-perceived attractiveness measures. While our results support the recalibrational theory's prediction that anger usage and formidability are positively correlated in males and suggest that this formidability can be assessed via anthropometric measures alone, they also suggest that this prediction may not apply to populations older than undergraduate age. Further, our results suggest that while female anger levels relate positively to self-perceived attractiveness, they are unrelated to most anthropometric measures of bodily attractiveness.     

Age variations in anthropometric and body composition characteristics and underweight among male Bathudis--a tribal population of Keonjhar District, Orissa, India

A cross-sectional study of 226 male Bathudis, a tribal population of Keonjhar District, Orissa, India, was undertaken to investigate age variations in anthropometric and body composition characteristics and the frequency of underweight. The subjects were categorized into three age groups: Group I: < 30 years, Group 11: 30-49 years, Group III: 2 50 years. Height, weight, circumferences and skinfolds data were collected. Body mass index (BMI) and several body composition variables and indices were derived using standard equations. Results revealed that there existed significant negative age variations for most of the anthropometric and body composition variables and indices. Correlation studies of age with these variables and indices revealed significant negative correlations. Linear regression analyses revealed that for all these variables, age had a significant negative impact. It was also observed that with increasing age, there was an increase in the frequency of underweight individuals. In conclusion, this study showed that among Bathudi men, age was significantly negatively related with anthropometric and body composition variables and indices. Furthermore, with increasing age, the frequency of underweight individuals increased.     

Standard anthropometric, body composition, and strength variables as predictors of jumping performance in elite junior athletes

The aim of the study was to investigate whether variables routinely assessed while testing athletes can also predict movement performance. The relation between jumping performance and standard strength, anthropometric, and body composition variables was examined in elite junior basketball players. The 33 males were tested for maximal vertical jump, as well as for maximal isometric voluntary force and rate of force development of hip and knee extensors. Standard anthropometric and body composition measures (body height, lean body mass, as well as the percentage of fat and muscle tissue) were also taken. Except for maximal isometric forces (0.38 and 0.52 N.kg(-1) for hip and knee extensors, respectively), all correlation coefficients between the selected variables and jump height were insignificant. As a consequence, the corresponding multiple correlation coefficient, R = 0.71, also suggested a moderate predictability of jumping performance by the standard strength tests and anthropometric and body composition variables. The results obtained dispute the use of the examined tests in sport performance assessment, and also question applying the tests for other purposes such as evaluation of training procedures or selection of young athletes. Therefore, the results are in line with the concept that a reliable performance assessment in homogeneous groups of athletes requires predominantly movement-specific testing.     

Anthropometric variables accurately predict dual energy x-ray absorptiometric-derived body composition and can be used to screen for diabetes

The current world-wide epidemic of obesity has stimulated interest in developing simple screening methods to identify individuals with undiagnosed diabetes mellitus type 2 (DM2) or metabolic syndrome (MS). Prior work utilizing body composition obtained by sophisticated technology has shown that the ratio of abdominal fat to total fat is a good predictor for DM2 or MS. The goals of this study were to determine how well simple anthropometric variables predict the fat mass distribution as determined by dual energy x-ray absorptometry (DXA), and whether these are useful to screen for DM2 or MS within a population. To accomplish this, the body composition of 341 females spanning a wide range of body mass indices and with a 23% prevalence of DM2 and MS was determined using DXA. Stepwise linear regression models incorporating age, weight, height, waistline, and hipline predicted DXA body composition (i.e., fat mass, trunk fat, fat free mass, and total mass) with good accuracy. Using body composition as independent variables, nominal logistic regression was then performed to estimate the probability of DM2. The results show good discrimination with the receiver operating characteristic (ROC) having an area under the curve (AUC) of 0.78. The anthropometrically-derived body composition equations derived from the full DXA study group were then applied to a group of 1153 female patients selected from a general endocrinology practice. Similar to the smaller study group, the ROC from logistical regression using body composition had an AUC of 0.81 for the detection of DM2. These results are superior to screening based on questionnaires and compare favorably with published data derived from invasive testing, e.g., hemoglobin A1c. This anthropometric approach offers promise for the development of simple, inexpensive, non-invasive screening to identify individuals with metabolic dysfunction within large populations.     

Size and shape modifications in Sardinian adolescent girls

In females, menarche is the defining moment of puberty, the period of life when the greatest body changes occur. In the present study, the metric and morphological variations associated with sexual maturation are defined in 155 Sardinian girls (10-17 years) and the role of some potentially influential variables is discussed: age, age at menarche and time since menarche. We studied thirty-eight anthropometric variables, the fat-free mass and the fat mass estimated by Bioelectrical Impedance Analysis. Statistical analyses were performed to evaluate the difference between pre- and post-menarcheal girls of the same age (Student's t-test) and to evaluate the different role played by the variables (principal components analysis, cluster analysis, multiple regression). The results demonstrate that the body dimensions of the adolescent girls mainly increase in concomitance with sexual maturation. The age at menarche influences the fat mass but not the distribution of visceral and subcutaneous fat. The time since menarche has also no effect on the distribution of subcutaneous fat.     

Are there differences in body dimensions among children from matings at different exogamic levels?

The aim of this study was to investigate if there are differences in body dimensions among children from matings of different levels of exogamy. The cross-sectional sample consisted of 285 children, 136 males and 149 females, 6 to 10 years old, attending elementary schools in Tortoli, a town in east-central Sardinia. The children were divided into four groups according to the level of exogamy. One of them included the children of parents born in the same Sardinian village is highly endogamous. For each sex, the Kruskal-Wallis test revealed no significant differences among the four groups of children for the 35 anthropometric variables considered, with the exception of head circumference in the male sample. In particular, there were no significant differences among the four groups of children for some anthropometric variables that are considered to be indirect indicators of nutritional status: sum of skinfolds, waist/hip ratio, body mass index, total upper arm area, upper arm muscle area, upper arm fat area. We conclude that Sardinian children from marriages of different levels of exogamy do not differ in body dimensions if they have similar nutritional conditions.