Chaperone-Mediated Folding and Maturation of the Penicillin Acylase Precursor in the Cytoplasm of Escherichia coli

Expression of the leaderless pac gene (LL pac), which lacks the coding region for the signal peptide of penicillin acylase (PAC), in Escherichia coli was conducted. It was demonstrated that the PAC precursor, proPAC, can be produced and even processed to form mature PAC in the cytoplasm, indicating that the posttranslational processing steps for PAC maturation can occur in both the periplasm and the cytoplasm of E. coli. The outcome of proPAC folding and PAC maturation could be affected by several factors, such as inducer type, proPAC formation rate, and chaperone availability. Misfolding of proPAC in the cytoplasm could be partially resolved through the coexpression of cytoplasmic chaperones, such as trigger factor, GroEL/ES, or DnaK/J-GrpE. The three chaperones tested showed different extents of the effect on proPAC solublization and PAC maturation, and trigger factor had the most prominent one. However, the chaperone-mediated solublization of proPAC did not guarantee its maturation, which is usually limited by the first autoproteolytic step. It was observed that arabinose could act as an effective inducer for the induction of LL pac expression regulated by the lac-derived promoter system of trc. In addition, PAC maturation could be highly facilitated by arabinose supplementation and coexpression of trigger factor, suggesting that the coordination of chaperone systems with proper culture conditions could dramatically impact recombinant protein production. This study suggests that folding/misfolding of proPAC could be a major step limiting the overproduction of PAC in E. coli and that the problem could be resolved through the search for appropriate chaperones for coexpression. It also demonstrates the analogy in the issues of proPAC misfolding as well as the expression bottleneck occurring in the cytoplasm (i.e., LL pac expression) and those occurring in the periplasm (i.e., wild-type pac expression).     

Cytoplasmic overexpression, folding, and processing of penicillin acylase precursor in Escherichia coli

Penicillin acylase (PAC) precursor, proPAC, was overproduced in a soluble or insoluble form in the cytoplasm of Escherichia coli through the expression of the leader-less pac gene (ll-pac) devoid of the coding region for the signal peptide of PAC. Also, a portion of the overexpressed proPAC was further processed to form mature PAC, indicating that the posttranslational processing steps for PAC maturation can occur in both the periplasm and the cytoplasm of E. coli. The cultivation performance for ll-pac expression was limited by several factors, including (1) misfolding of proPAC, resulting in the aggregation of insoluble proPAC as inclusion bodies, (2) intracellular proteolysis, leading to the degradation of the overexpressed gene products, and (3) inefficient PAC maturation, limiting the formation of active PAC. The effect of coexpression of various cytoplasmic chaperones, including trigger factor, GroEL/ES, DnaK/J-GrpE, and their combinations, on ll-pac expression was investigated. Intracellular proteolysis of the overexpressed gene products could be prevented by coexpression of GroEL/ES. On the other hand, coexpression of trigger factor appeared to be able to facilitate the folding of soluble proPAC and to improve PAC maturation. The roles of trigger factor and GroEL/ES could be coordinated to significantly improve ll-pac expression performance. DnaK/J-GrpE had an effect for solublization of proPAC and perhaps, similar to trigger factor, for improving PAC maturation. The ll-pac expression performance was also significantly improved through the simultaneous coexpression of DnaK/J-GrpE and GroEL/ES. The results of the study suggest that the folding and/or processing of proPAC could be a major issue limiting the overproduction of PAC in E. coli and the bottleneck could be eliminated through the coexpression of appropriate chaperone(s).     

Arabinose-induction of lac-derived promoter systems for penicillin acylase production in Escherichia coli

Arabinose was shown to serve as an effective inducer for induction of the lac-derived promoters in Escherichia coli using penicillin acylase (PAC) as a model protein. Upon the induction with a conventional inducer, isopropyl-beta-d-thiogalactopyranoside (IPTG), for pac overexpression, which is regulated by the trc or (DE3)/T7 promoter, the production of PAC was limited by the accumulation of PAC precursors (proPAC) as inclusion bodies. Negative cellular responses, such as growth inhibition and cell lysis, were frequently observed, resulting in a low pac expression level and poor culture performance. Interestingly, these technical hurdles can be overcome simply through the use of arabinose as an inducer. The results indicate that arabinose not only induced the lac-derived promoter systems (i.e., trc and (DE3)/T7) for pac (or LL pac) overexpression but also facilitated the posttranslational processing of proPAC for maturation. However, the arabinose-inducibility appears to be host-dependent and becomes less observable in the strains with a mutation in the ara operon. The arabinose-inducibility was also investigated in the expression system with the coexistence of the trc promoter system regulating pac expression and another arabinose-inducible promoter system of araB regulating degP coexpression.     

High-level gene expression for recombinant penicillin acylase production using the araB promoter system in Escherichia coli

The pac gene encoding penicillin acylase (PAC) was overexpressed under the regulation of the araB promoter (ParaB, also known as PBAD) in Escherichia coli (E. coli). The current ParaB expression system exhibited minimum leaking pac expression in the absence of arabinose as well as fast and high-level pac expression upon induction with arabinose in a wide concentration range. The production of PAC was limited by the accumulation of PAC precursors (i.e., proPAC in both soluble and insoluble forms) and various negative cellular responses, such as growth arrest and cell lysis. The culture performance could be improved by degP coexpression and the individual contribution of DegP protease and chaperone activities to the enhancement on the production of PAC was characterized. The study highlights the importance of identifying the step(s) limiting high-level gene expression and subsequent design and construction of the host/vector system for enhancing recombinant protein production in E. coli.     

Characterization of the T7 promoter system for expressing penicillin acylase in Escherichia coli

The pac gene encoding penicillin acylase (PAC) was overexpressed under the regulation of the T7 promoter in Escherichia coli. PAC, with its complex formation mechanism, serves as a unique target protein for demonstration of several key strategies for enhancing recombinant protein production. The current T7 system for pac overexpression was fraught with various technical hurdles. Upon the induction with a conventional inducer of isopropyl-β-d-thiogalactopyranoside (IPTG), the production of PAC was limited by the accumulation of PAC precursors (proPAC) as inclusion bodies and various negative cellular responses such as growth inhibition and cell lysis. The expression performance could be improved by the coexpression of degP encoding a periplasmic protein with protease and chaperone activities. In addition to IPTG, arabinose was shown to be another effective inducer. Interestingly, arabinose not only induced the current T7 promoter system for pac expression but also facilitated the posttranslational processing of proPAC for maturation, resulting in significant enhancement for the production of PAC. Glycerol appeared to have an effect similar to, but not as significant as, arabinose for enhancing the production of PAC. The study highlights the importance of developing suitable genetically engineered strains with culture conditions for enhancing recombinant protein production in E. coli.     

Effect of heat-shock proteins for relieving physiological stress and enhancing the production of penicillin acylase in Escherichia coli

High-level expression of recombinant penicillin acylase (PAC) using the strong trc promoter system in Escherichia coli is frequently limited by the processing and folding of PAC precursors (proPAC) in the periplasm, resulting in physiological stress and inclusion body formation in this compartment. Periplasmic heat-shock proteins with protease or chaperone activity potentially offer a promise for overcoming this technical hurdle. In this study, the effect of the two genes encoding periplasmic heat-shock proteins, that is degP and fkpA, on pac overexpression was investigated and manipulation of the two genes to enhance the production of recombinant PAC was demonstrated. Both DeltadegP and DeltafkpA mutants showed defective culture performance primarily due to growth arrest. However, pac expression level was not seriously affected by the mutations, indicating that the two proteins were not directly involved in the pathway for periplasmic processing of proPAC. The growth defect caused by the two mutations (i.e., DeltadegP and DeltafkpA) was complemented by either one of the wild-type proteins, implying that the function of the two proteins could partially overlap in cells overexpressing pac. The possible role that the two heat-shock proteins played for suppression of physiological stress caused by pac overexpression is discussed.     

Roles of DegP in prevention of protein misfolding in the periplasm upon overexpression of penicillin acylase in Escherichia coli

Enhancement of the production of soluble recombinant penicillin acylase in Escherichia coli via coexpression of a periplasmic protease/chaperone, DegP, was demonstrated. Coexpression of DegP resulted in a shift of in vivo penicillin acylase (PAC) synthesis flux from the nonproductive pathway to the productive one when pac was overexpressed. The number of inclusion bodies, which consist primarily of protein aggregates of PAC precursors in the periplasm, was highly reduced, and the specific PAC activity was highly increased. DegP was a heat shock protein induced in response to pac overexpression, suggesting that the protein could possibly suppress the physiological toxicity caused by pac overexpression. Coexpression of DegP(S210A), a DegP mutant without protease activity but retaining chaperone activity, could not suppress the physiological toxicity, suggesting that DegP protease activity was primarily responsible for the suppression, possibly by degradation of abnormal proteins when pac was overexpressed. However, a shortage of periplasmic protease activity was not the only reason for the deterioration in culture performance upon pac overexpression because coexpression of a DegP-homologous periplasmic protease, DegQ or DegS, could not suppress the physiological toxicity. The chaperone activity of DegP is proposed to be another possible factor contributing to the suppression.     

DegP-coexpression minimizes inclusion-body formation upon overproduction of recombinant penicillin acylase in Escherichia coli

We demonstrated the enhancement of recombinant penicillin acylase (PAC) production in Escherichia coli by increasing the intracellular concentration of the periplasmic protease DegP. Using appropriate host/vector systems (e.g., HB101 harboring pTrcKnPAC2902 or MDDeltaP7 harboring pTrcKnPAC2902) in which the expression of the pac gene was regulated by the strong trc promoter, the overproduction of PAC was often limited by periplasmic processing and inclusion bodies composed of protein aggregates of PAC precursors were formed in the periplasm. The amount of these periplasmic inclusion bodies was significantly reduced and PAC activity was significantly increased upon coexpression of DegP. The specific PAC activity reached an extremely high level of 674 U/L/OD(600) for MDDeltaP7 harboring pTrcKnPAC2902 and pKS12 under optimum culture conditions. However, such improvement in the production of PAC was not observed for the expression systems (e.g., MDDeltaP7 harboring pCLL2902) in which the periplasmic processing was not the step limiting the production of PAC. The results suggest that DegP could in vivo assist the periplasmic processing though the enzyme is shown to be not absolutely required for the formation of active PAC in E. coli. In addition, the steps limiting the production of PAC are identified and the reasons for the formation of PAC inclusion bodies are discussed here.     

Production of correctly folded Fab antibody fragment in the cytoplasm of Escherichia coli trxB gor mutants via the coexpression of molecular chaperones.

Disulfide bonds are normally formed after a polypeptide has been exported from the reducing environment of the cytoplasm into a more oxidizing compartment, such as the bacterial periplasm. Recently, we showed that in Escherichia coli trxB gor mutants, in which the reduction of thioredoxin and glutathione is impaired, the redox potential of the cytoplasm becomes comparable to that of the mammalian endoplasmic reticulum, thus allowing the formation of disulfide bonds in certain complex proteins (P. H. Bessette et al., 1999, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 96, 13703-13708]. Here, we investigate the expression of a Fab antibody fragment in the bacterial cytoplasm. The effect of coexpressing cytoplasmic chaperones (GroEL/ES, trigger factor, DnaK/J), as well as signal sequenceless versions of periplasmic chaperones (DsbC and Skp), was examined. Skp coexpression was shown to have the most significant effect (five- to sixfold increase) on the yield of correctly folded Fab. A maximum yield of 0.8 mg Fab/L/OD(600) Fab was obtained, indicating that cytoplasmic expression may be a viable alternative for the preparative production of antibody fragments.     

Coexpression of molecular chaperones to enhance functional expression of anti-BNP scFv in the cytoplasm of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Escherichia coli</Emphasis> for the detection of B-type natriuretic peptide

Molecular chaperones are a ubiquitous family of cellular proteins that mediate the correct folding of other target polypeptides. In our previous study, the recombinant anti-BNP scFv, which has promising applications for diagnostic, prognostic, and therapeutic monitoring of heart failure, was expressed in the cytoplasm of Escherichia coli. However, when the anti-BNP scFv was expressed, 73.4% of expressed antibodies formed insoluble inclusion bodies. In this study, molecular chaperones were coexpressed with anti-BNP scFv with the goal of improving the production of functional anti-BNP in the cytoplasm of E. coli. Five sets of molecular chaperones were assessed for their effects on the production of active anti-BNP scFv. These sets included the following: trigger factor (TF); groES/groEL; groES/groEL/TF; dnaK/dnaJ/grpE; groES/groEL/dnaK/dnaJ/grpE. Of these chaperones, the coexpression of anti-BNP scFv with the groES/groEL chaperones encoded in plasmid pGro7 exhibited the most efficient functional expression of anti-BNP scFv as an active form. Coexpressed with the groES/groEL chaperones, 64.9% of the total anti-BNP scFv was produced in soluble form, which is 2.4 times higher scFv than that of anti-BNP scFv expressed without molecular chaperones, and the relative binding activity was 1.5-fold higher. The optimal concentration of l-arabinose required for induction of the groES/groEL chaperone set was determined to be 1.0 mM and relative binding activity was 3.5 times higher compared with that of no induction with l-arabinose. In addition, soluble anti-BNP scFv was increased from 11.5 to 31.4 μg/ml with optimized inducer concentration (1.0 mM l-arabinose) for the coexpression of the groES/groEL chaperones. These results demonstrate that the functional expression of anti-BNP scFv can be improved by coexpression of molecular chaperones, as molecular chaperones can identify and help to refold improperly folded anti-BNP scFv.     

Optimisation of production of a domoic acid-binding scFv antibody fragment in Escherichia coli using molecular chaperones and functional immobilisation on a mesoporous silicate support

Domoic acid is a potent neurotoxin that can lead to amnesic shellfish poisoning in humans through ingestion of contaminated shellfish. We have produced and purified an anti-domoic acid single-chain Fragment variable (scFv) antibody fragment from the Escherichia coli periplasm. Yields of functional protein were increased by up to 100-fold upon co-production of E. coli DnaKJE molecular chaperones but co-overproduction of GroESL led to a reduction in solubility of the scFv. Co-production of the peptidyl-prolyl isomerase trigger factor resulted in accumulation of unprocessed scFv in the E. coli cytoplasm. This was due to an apparent bottleneck in translocation of the cytoplasmic membrane by the recombinant polypeptide. Co-expression of the E. coli disulfide bond isomerase dsbC increased scFv yields by delaying lysis of the host bacterial cells though this effect was not synergistic with molecular chaperone co-production. Meanwhile, use of a cold-shock promoter for protein production led to accumulation of greater amounts of scFv polypeptide which was predominantly in insoluble form and could not be rescued by chaperones. Purification of the scFv was achieved using an optimised metal affinity chromatography procedure and the purified protein bound domoic acid when immobilised on a mesoporous silicate support. The work outlines the potential benefit of applying a molecular chaperone/folding catalyst screening approach to improve antibody fragment production for applications such as sensor development.     

Productive interaction of chaperones with substrate protein domains allows correct folding of the downstream GFP domain

Green fluorescent protein (GFP) has been used to report protein folding by correlating solubility with fluorescence. In a GFP fusion protein, an upstream aggregation-prone domain can disrupt de novo folding of the GFP domain in Escherichia coli, resulting in a loss of fluorescence. Previously, we showed that prevention of misfolding of the upstream aggregation-prone domain by a coupled folding and binding interaction during protein synthesis restored both GFP fluorescence and solubility. Since molecular chaperones often fold nascent polypeptides through a bind-and-release interaction, the question remains whether the chaperone interaction with the upstream aggregation-prone domain enhances GFP fluorescence. Here, we demonstrate that a significant increase in GFP fluorescence occurred only when appropriate chaperones that recognized the aggregation-prone protein and helped its folding were co-expressed. A possible correlation between GFP fluorescence and the productive folding by chaperones is proposed. This study may provide a general strategy for identifying chaperones specific for difficult-to-fold proteins.     

Effect of SecB chaperone on production of periplasmic penicillin acylase in Escherichia coli.

The effect of SecB chaperone on production of periplasmic penicillin acylase (PAC) in Escherichia coli was investigated. It appears that formation of PAC required the function of SecB chaperone and the amount of SecB required was at a basal level. The secB mutant was defective in production of PAC, and the impairment could be complemented by extrachromosomally supplementing SecB in trans. The function of SecB might be primarily stabilizing the cytoplasmic PAC precursors. Overproduction of SecB chaperone usually resulted in an increase in the amount of PAC precursors without enhancing PAC activity. In addition, most of the PAC precursors were located in the periplasm, suggesting that formation of active PAC was likely limited by periplasmic processing steps.     

Function of trigger factor and DnaK in multidomain protein folding: increase in yield at the expense of folding speed

Trigger factor and DnaK protect nascent protein chains from misfolding and aggregation in the E. coli cytosol, but how these chaperones affect the mechanism of de novo protein folding is not yet understood. Upon expression under chaperone-depleted conditions, multidomain proteins such as bacterial beta-galactosidase (beta-gal) and eukaryotic luciferase fold by a rapid but inefficient default pathway, tightly coupled to translation. Trigger factor and DnaK improve the folding yield of these proteins but markedly delay the folding process both in vivo and in vitro. This effect requires the dynamic recruitment of additional trigger factor molecules to translating ribosomes. While beta-galactosidase uses this chaperone mechanism effectively, luciferase folding in E. coli remains inefficient. The efficient cotranslational domain folding of luciferase observed in the eukaryotic system is not compatible with the bacterial chaperone system. These findings suggest important differences in the coupling of translation and folding between bacterial and eukaryotic cells.     

ClpB and HtpG facilitate de novo protein folding in stressed Escherichia coli cells

DnaK-DnaJ-GrpE and GroEL-GroES are the best-characterized molecular chaperone systems in the cytoplasm of Escherichia coli. A number of additional proteins, including ClpA, ClpB, HtpG and IbpA/B, act as molecular chaperones in vitro, but their function in cellular protein folding remains unclear. Here, we examine how these chaperones influence the folding of newly synthesized recombinant proteins under heat-shock conditions. We show that the absence of either CIpB or HtpG at 42 degrees C leads to increased aggregation of preS2-beta-galactosidase, a fusion protein whose folding depends on DnaK-DnaJ-GrpE, but not GroEL-GroES. However, only the deltaclpB mutation is deleterious to the folding of homodimeric Rubisco and cMBP, two proteins requiring the GroEL-GroES chaperonins to reach a proper conformation. Null mutations in clpA or the ibpAB operon do not affect the folding of these model substrates. Overexpression of ClpB, HtpG, IbpA/B or ClpA does not suppress inclusion body formation by the aggregation-prone protein preS2-S'-beta-galactosidase in wild-type cells or alleviate recombinant protein misfolding in dnaJ259, grpE280 or groES30 mutants. By contrast, higher levels of DnaK-DnaJ, but not GroEL-GroES, restore efficient folding in deltaclpB cells. These results indicate that ClpB, and to a lesser extent HtpG, participate in de novo protein folding in mildly stressed E. coli cells, presumably by expanding the ability of the DnaK-DnaJ-GrpE team to interact with newly synthesized polypeptides.     

大肠杆菌中青霉素G酰化酶成熟的限制性因素

为了研究大肠杆菌中青霉素G酰化酶 (PenicillinGacylase ,PAC)成熟的限制性步骤 ,分别构建了PAC表达质粒pKKpacSP ,pETpacSP ,并将它们在大肠杆菌宿主中表达。通过酶活性的测定及Westernblotting分析 ,分别在PAC自身表达系统 ,Tac ,T7及氧调控表达系统中 ,研究PAC前体蛋白加工成α亚基、β亚基的效率及亚基折叠组装形成活性酶的能力。结果表明 :PAC成熟过程中的限制性步骤因宿主 载体系统而异 ;PAC本身表达系统中 ,前体肽加工成α亚基、β亚基的效率为 57.2 % ,亚基组装能力为 0.72;Tac启动子表达调控系统中α亚基的折叠和稳定成为限制性步骤 ;T7及氧调控表达系统中 ,PAC前体肽加工成α亚基、β亚基的效率达 90 %左右 ,亚基组装成活性酶的能力分别为 1 82 ,2 ;低氧调控系统表达PAC时 ,成熟的效率最高 ,PAC表达的单位重量活性提高 10倍.     

Synthesis and secretion of Providencia rettgeri and Escherichia coli heterodimeric penicillin amidases in Saccharomyces cerevisiae

The Providencia rettgeri and Escherichia coli pac genes encoding heterodimeric penicillin G amidases (PAC) were successfully expressed in Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Furthermore, these recombinant enzymes are secreted from the yeast cell into the medium which is in contrast to bacterial hosts, where the enzymes are retained in the periplasm. Contrary to the P. rettgeri PAC-encoding gene, the E. coli pac is poorly expressed in yeast. The highest yield of P. rettgeri PAC was obtained with a multi-copy plasmid, resulting in of 1500units per liter. This yield is higher by an order of magnitude than that obtained in the best recombinant bacterial expression system. The recombinant P. rettgeri enzyme is only partially and selectively O-glycosylated. Only every sixth or seventh alpha-subunit is glycosylated, while the beta-subunit is not glycosylated at all. N-Glycosylation has not been detected.     

Coexpression of molecular chaperone enhances activity and export of organophosphorus hydrolase in Escherichia coli

Periplasmic secretion has been used in attempts to construct an efficient whole‐cell biocatalyst with greatly reduced diffusion limitations. Previously, we developed recombinant Escherichia coli that express organophosphorus hydrolase (OPH) in the periplasmic space using the twin‐arginine translocation (Tat) pathway to degrade environmental toxic organophosphate compounds. This system has the advantage of secreting protein into the periplasm after folding in the cytoplasm. However, when OPH was expressed with a Tat signal sequence in E. coli, we found that the predominant OPH was an insoluble premature form in the cytoplasm, and thus, the whole‐cell OPH activity was significantly lower than its cell lysate activity. In this work, we, for the first time, used a molecular chaperone coexpression strategy to enhance whole‐cell OPH activity by improving the periplasmic translocation of soluble OPH. We found that the effect of GroEL‐GroES (GroEL/ES) assistance on the periplasmic localization of OPH was secretory pathway dependent. We observed a significant increase in the amount of soluble mature OPH when cytoplasmic GroEL/ES was expressed; this increase in the amount of mature OPH might be due to enhanced OPH folding in the cytoplasm. Importantly, the whole‐cell OPH activity of the chaperone–coexpressing cells was ～5.5‐fold greater at 12 h after induction than that of cells that did not express the chaperone as a result of significant Tat‐based periplasmic translocation of OPH in the chaperone–coexpressing cells. Collectively, these data suggest that molecular chaperones significantly enhance the whole‐cell activity of periplasmic OPH‐secreting cells, yielding an effective whole‐cell biocatalyst system with highly reduced diffusion limitations. © 2012 American Institute of Chemical Engineers Biotechnol. Prog., 28: 925–930, 2012     

Cpx signaling pathway monitors biogenesis and affects assembly and expression of P pili

P pili are important virulence factors in uropathogenic Escherichia coli. The Cpx two-component signal transduction system controls a stress response and is activated by misfolded proteins in the periplasm. We have discovered new functions for the Cpx pathway, indicating that it may play a critical role in pathogenesis. P pili are assembled via the chaperone/usher pathway. Subunits that go 'OFF-pathway' during pilus biogenesis generate a signal. This signal is derived from the misfolding and aggregation of subunits that failed to come into contact with the chaperone in the periplasm. In response, Cpx not only controls the stress response, but also controls genes necessary for pilus biogenesis, and is involved in regulating the phase variation of pap expression and, potentially, the expression of a panoply of other virulence factors. This study demonstrates how the prototypic chaperone/usher pathway is intricately linked and dependent upon a signal transduction system.