Symbolism in prehistoric man

The aptitude for symbolization, characteristic of man, is revealed not only in artistic representations and funerary practices. It is exhibited by every manifestation of human activity or representation of natural phenomena that assumes or refers to a meaning. We can recognize functional symbolism (tool-making, habitative or food technology), social symbolism, (language and social communication) and spiritual symbolism (funerary practices and artistic expressions). On the basis of these concepts, research into symbolism in prehistoric man allows us to recognize forms of symbolism already in the manifestations of the most ancient humans, starting with Homo habilis (or rudolfensis). Toolmaking, social organization and organization of the territory are oriented toward survival and the life of the family group. They attest to symbolic behaviors and constitute symbolic systems by means of which man expresses himself, lives and transmits his symbolic world. The diverse forms of symbolism are discussed with reference to the different phases of prehistoric humanity.     

Maternal mortality in pre-Columbian Indians of Arica, Chile

A study of female mummies representing seven pre-Columbian Andean populations of Arica, Chile, dating from 1300 B.C. (Azapa phase) to A.D. 1400 (Gentilar phase), disclosed that 18 (14% of the total) had died from childbirth-complicated death (CCD). The majority of these individuals appear to have died during puerperium, three of them without complete delivery. Higher rates of CCD were found in the earlier cultural phases (1300 B.C.-A.D. 600) after which the maternal mortality rate decreased. The precise causes of this mortality are not known, but septic conditions, acute diseases, and cultural practices relating to birth are implicated.     

Archaeoentomological study of a pre-Columbian funerary bundle (mortuary cave of Candelaria,Coahuila, Mexico)

The archaeoentomological study of insect remains recovered from a pre-Columbian funerary bundle (10th–11th centuries ad) is presented and illustrated. Among this material, 12 species belonging to 10 families and four distinct orders have been identified. From the biological data of the different taxa, some hypotheses about the funerary practices of the hunter–gatherer semi nomads of Northern Mexico are proposed.     

“Nothing Special,Everything Is Maamuli”: Socio-Cultural and Family Practices Influencing the Perinatal Period in Urban India

Background

Globally, India contributes the largest share in sheer numbers to the burden of maternal and infant under-nutrition, morbidity and mortality. A major gap in our knowledge is how socio-cultural practices and beliefs influence the perinatal period and thus perinatal outcomes, particularly in the rapidly growing urban setting.

Methods and Findings

Using data from a qualitative study in urban south India, including in-depth interviews with 36 women who had recently been through childbirth as well as observations of family life and clinic encounters, we explored the territory of familial, cultural and traditional practices and beliefs influencing women and their families through pregnancy, childbirth and infancy. We found that while there were some similarities in cultural practices to those described before in studies from low resource village settings, there are changing practices and ideas. Fertility concerns dominate women’s experience of married life; notions of gender preference and ideal family size are changing rapidly in response to the urban context; however inter-generational family pressures are still considerable. While a rich repertoire of cultural practices persists throughout the perinatal continuum, their existence is normalised and even underplayed. In terms of diet and nutrition, traditional messages including notions of ‘hot’ and ‘cold’ foods, are stronger than health messages; however breastfeeding is the cultural norm and the practice of delayed breastfeeding appears to be disappearing in this urban setting. Marriage, pregnancy and childbirth are so much part of the norm for women, that there is little expectation of individual choice in any of these major life events.

Conclusions

A greater understanding is needed of the dynamic factors shaping the perinatal period in urban India, including an acknowledgment of the health promoting as well as potentially harmful cultural practices and the critical role of the family. This will help plan culturally appropriate integrated perinatal health care.     

Overwintering of Monilinia spp. on Mummified Stone Fruit

Mummies were evaluated over the course of four growing seasons to ensure they are source of primary inoculum. The percentage of mummies with presence of conidia and its viability were determined in tree and ground mummies. The number of conidia and its germination were also quantified. Fruit mummies with Monilinia spp. were consistently detected on tree mummies in all studied orchards and growing seasons. However, the percentage of viable mummies over the same sampling periods decreased, and in most cases, it was 0% by October. The percentage of ground mummies with Monilinia spp. was lower and less viable in comparison with tree mummies, tending to decrease faster. The number of overwintering conidia in tree mummies decreased smoothly from 1 × 10⁶ to 1 × 10⁴ conidia/mummy between April and September. On the other hand, the number of conidia in ground mummies rapidly decreased to 0 conidia/mummy at around May–July. The profiles for the percentage of conidia germinated were similar in all cases. The information obtained from this study is a step forward to understanding the epidemiology of Monilinia spp., a useful tool to manage disease development.     

Diagnosing ancient diphyllobothriasis from Chinchorro mummies

Diphyllobothrium pacificum has been reported as a human parasite from coprolites and skeletons in Peru and Chile. Our analysis of Chinchorro mummies from Chile provides the oldest evidence of D. pacificum directly associated with human mummies. These mummies date between 4,000 and 5,000 years ago. The basis for our diagnosis is presented. We find that the size of the eggs in the mummies is smaller than other discoveries of D. pacificum. We suggest that this is due to the peculiar circumstances of preservation of parasite eggs within mummies and the release of immature eggs into the intestinal tract as the tapeworms decompose after the death of the host. This information is important to consider when making diagnoses from mummies.     

Pratiques funéraires et recrutement : reprise d’étude des collections osseuses issues des dolmens du Languedoc oriental et sud des Cévennes à la fin du Néolithique

Collective burials were the main and most widespread funerary practice at the end of the Neolithic, beginning of the Bronze Age in the south of France. Megalithic monuments required a huge investment of time and labor. According to ethnographic studies, these monumental tombs are generally built and managed collectively. One can therefore wonder who was buried inside these structures because several archaeological studies indicate that access to these tombs can sometimes be restricted to certain members of the population. Indeed, ethnography highlights that access to certain tombs can be structured by variables such as kinship, social status, etc. While previous studies have mainly focused on the architecture and function of these monuments, this article focuses on the process of deposition of human remains and the characterization of the population buried inside these monuments. Since 2012, a project has been undertaken on the dolmens of the south of France in order to discuss funerary practices and to compare them with data from other archaeosciences to rediscuss the funerary traditions in place at the end of the Neolithic, the beginning of the Bronze Age.     

The chinchorro people of Northern Chile 5000 BC-500 BC,a review of their culture and relationships

The earliest human occupation of the South American Pacific Coast at latitudes of around 18° South appears to have been by hunters and gatherers in the process of adapting to a maritime setting. One of their most distinctive features are their ritual treatment of their dead by a form of mummification. These mummies are the earliest yet described. The bodies were eviscerated, treated internally and externally, refilled with a variety of materials, modelled externally with clay and the skin replaced over the modelled shape. A number of variation in technique have been noted. Radiocarbon dates (uncorrected) range from 7810±180 B.P. to 2480±100 B.P. It is hypothesised that this early occupation was the result of population movements from a tropical forest environment because of population pressure. This hypothesis has been tested using evidence derived from biological distance studies based on craniometrical data, blood groups and enzymes, on material cultural remains and on ecological comparisons.     

Pratiques mortuaires en fosse au Néolithique moyen dans le midi de la France : caractérisations et éclairages interprétatifs

The most recent synthesis on the mortuary practices in the Middle Neolithic in Mediterranean France was published more than a decade ago. We propose to characterize those gestures focusing on the funerary nature of some inhumations discovered on domestic settlement. Two types of structures are distinguished. The first is composed of pits which function is exclusively related to funerary body or cremated bones deposit. Their features enable to consider that they are tombs. The domestic pits used as bodies or bones deposition constitute the second type. They are the most frequent in our corpus. Some of them display many features of the regular tombs but the configurations of most of those circular pits are difficult to interpret. Some alternative hypotheses are proposed to explain these particular body depositions.     

Funerary practices of the Iberomaurusian population of Taforalt (Tafoughalt, Morocco, 11–12,000 BP): the case of Grave XII

The Iberomaurusian necropolis of Taforalt (Morocco, 11-12000 BP), excavated by Roche in the 1950s, contains 28 multiple graves. The funerary practices of the Taforalt population have been the focus of a previous work (Mariotti et al., 2009). In the absence of the excavation records of the necropolis, these funerary practices were investigated through the analysis of the contents of each grave and the distribution of intentionally modified specimens (ochre-dyeing, cut marks). Previous research has drawn particular attention to Grave XII (containing three male adults and two juveniles), where many intentionally modified specimens were identified. The present study focused specifically on the human remains recovered from Grave XII. Analysis of these remains has provided evidence of interventions, such as dismemberment and defleshing of the cadaver, and the use of ochre to colour the bones. Furthermore, the presence of lesions on two skulls suggests the possibility of intentional killing and cannibalism among the Taforalt population. This study further supports our previous impression of the complex and diversified funerary practices, characterising the social life of the Iberomaurusian population of Taforalt.     

Cremation practices coexisting at the S’Illot des Porros Necropolis during the Second Iron Age in the Balearic Islands (Spain)

The necropolis of S’Illot des Porros, one of the most important prehistoric funerary sites of the Balearic Islands (Spain), was in use from the VIth and Vth century BCE until the Ist century CE. Located in a funerary area which contains two cementeries and one sanctuary, this site is constituted by three funerary chambers named A, B and C, respectively. Investigations on all the human burnt bone remains of the chambers, carried out mainly by the X-ray diffraction and supplemented in some cases by Fourier Transform Infrared spectroscopy pointed to the simultaneous use of inhumation and cremation funerary rites, probably due to existing social differences.In particular, it was argued that the chambers were differentiated, i.e., B was dedicated to inhumations and A to cremations, the cremations found in chamber B very likely being a result of a cleaning-purification of the burial area. Moreover, chamber C, which is the most ancient (IVth century BCE) and with the largest number of inhumed remains, contains the smallest number of remains that were exposed to fire and just in one case it seems possible to attribute a genuine high-temperature cremation.     

Les squelettes mésolithiques et néolithiques de l'abri des Autours (province de Namur,Belgique)

The ‘Autours’ rockshelter (province of Namur, Belgium) excavated in 1992–1993 revealed three burials dated to different periods. Two of them are collective and belong to cultural contexts for which funerary practices were until then unknown. The first belongs to the Middle Neolithic and contained the remains of three adults and six children. In the second burial dated to the Early Mesolithic, six adults (one of them was cremated) and six children were discovered. The most ancient burial corresponds to a single interment. It is also dated to the Early Mesolithic and it contained the skeleton of a mature woman. The biometrical study of the fossils shows the presence of archaic morphological features. To cite this article: C. Polet, N. Cauwe, C. R. Palevol 1 (2002) 43–50.     

The role of cultural practices in the emergence of modern human intelligence

Innate cognitive capacities are orchestrated by cultural practices to produce high-level cognitive processes. In human activities, examples of this phenomenon range from everyday inferences about space and time to the most sophisticated reasoning in scientific laboratories. A case is examined in which chimpanzees enter into cultural practices with humans (in experiments) in ways that appear to enable them to engage in symbol-mediated thought. Combining the cultural practices perspective with the theories of embodied cognition and enactment suggests that the chimpanzees' behaviour is actually mediated by non-symbolic representations. The possibility that non-human primates can engage in cultural practices that give them the appearance of symbol-mediated thought opens new avenues for thinking about the coevolution of human culture and human brains.     

ABO blood groups in Chilean and Peruvian mummies. II. Results of agglutination-inhibition technique

ABO blood groups of Peruvian and Chilean mummies were determined with the agglutination-inhibition method. In Peru all ABO blood groups were found in the period from 3000 B.C. to 1400 A.D.; from this period to 1650 only A and O were seen. In Chile no B or AB was noted either in pre-Columbian or Colonial mummies. This confirms the archeological concept that the Chilean Indian was culturally as well as genetically different from the Peruvian Indian. Further studies using other genetic markers are in order, as well as changing certain preconceived notions on blood groups of American Indians.     

Biography,Authenticity and Personalised Post-Mortem Practices in Aotearoa/New Zealand

Current thanatology discourse details a new ethos of openness transforming death-related practices, accentuating a shift to personalised rituals, authenticity and expressive grief. Drawing on ethnographic interviews with mourners and funeral professionals, this article explores these putative post-mortem changes and critically assesses the claims and counterclaims concerning funerary arrangements in New Zealand. While underscoring the complexity of mortuary practices, this study explicates the varying notions of authenticity that pervade the funeral discourse. Although funeral professionals emphasised the significance of grief and bereavement processes characterised by a need for honesty and transparency, bereaved participants proffered an alternative interpretation of authenticity that privileged biographical coherence and the need to confer transcendence to the dead. These findings not only emphasise the inadequacies of the aforementioned representations of post-mortem change, but elucidate the context-specific conceptualisations of authenticity and the continuing relationships between the living and the dead in Aotearoa/New Zealand.     

Intraguild predation by aphidophagous predators on parasitised aphids: the use of multiple video cameras

A video technique that allows simultaneous behavioural observations of several experimental replicates under field and laboratory conditions is described. The technique was used to analyse predation risk of parasitised aphids in a sugar beet field. The images of 16 black and white video cameras were recorded by a video multiplexer in combination with a time-lapse video recorder. Each camera was weather protected and equipped with a single infrared diode to allow observations during night times. Single leaves carrying aphid mummies only or mummies and unparasitised aphids were monitored. All colonies were exposed to predation and parasitation by the community of natural enemies in the field. Colonies with mummies and unparasitised aphids were visited significantly more often by predators than those without additional aphids. Predators also stayed significantly longer in patches with unparasitised aphids. Although an equal proportion of aphid mummies were destroyed in both treatments, the video analysis showed differences in predator species spectrum between treatments. In patches with aphids, coccinellid and hemipteran predators preyed on mummies, while in patches with only mummies, chrysopids accounted for most of the damage. The decrease in parasitoid survival could be attributed to the increasing number of predator visits in aphid patches and to a lesser extent to the decreasing number of unparasitised aphids (alternative prey). Parasitoid survival in colonies without alternative prey was correlated with the number of predator visits and the time predators spent on a leaf.Continuous video observations gave additional behavioural information for the interpretation of field data. Other prospective research fields for the use of the multi video camera technique are outlined and general advantages and disadvantages are discussed.     

Checklist and Scoring System for the Assessment of Soft Tissue Preservation in CT Examinations of Human Mummies

The purpose of this study was to develop a checklist for standardized assessment of soft tissue preservation in human mummies based on whole-body computed tomography examinations, and to add a scoring system to facilitate quantitative comparison of mummies. Computed tomography examinations of 23 mummies from the Capuchin Catacombs of Palermo, Sicily (17 adults, 6 children; 17 anthropogenically and 6 naturally mummified) and 7 mummies from the crypt of the Dominican Church of the Holy Spirit of Vilnius, Lithuania (5 adults, 2 children; all naturally mummified) were used to develop the checklist following previously published guidelines. The scoring system was developed by assigning equal scores for checkpoints with equivalent quality. The checklist was evaluated by intra- and inter-observer reliability. The finalized checklist was applied to compare the groups of anthropogenically and naturally mummified bodies. The finalized checklist contains 97 checkpoints and was divided into two main categories, “A. Soft Tissues of Head and Musculoskeletal System” and “B. Organs and Organ Systems”, each including various subcategories. The complete checklist had an intra-observer reliability of 98% and an inter-observer reliability of 93%. Statistical comparison revealed significantly higher values in anthropogenically compared to naturally mummified bodies for the total score and for three subcategories. In conclusion, the developed checklist allows for a standardized assessment and documentation of soft tissue preservation in whole-body computed tomography examinations of human mummies. The scoring system facilitates a quantitative comparison of the soft tissue preservation status between single mummies or mummy collections.     

Twin death and mourning worldwide: a review of the literature.

Cultural beliefs about the nature of multiples appear in the mourning practices of many civilizations. Ethnographic literature suggests common themes that echo modern concepts. Many societies viewed twins as fragile, likely to die without preferential or meticulously equal treatment. A shared soul between twins is a common tenet, and the death of one is often felt to herald the other's prompt demise. The close relationship between multiples influences funerary rites. Honor, fear and mysticism are often evident in rituals. Twin infanticide was widely practiced, yet mourning customs were still observed. Many peoples recognize the special status of multiples and their families after one, two or more die.     

Resistance to Chalkbrood disease in Apis mellifera L. (Hymenoptera: Apidae) colonies with different hygienic behaviour

Chalkbrood disease affects the larvae of honeybees Apis mellifera L. and is caused by the fungus Ascosphaera apis. Infected larvae die when they are stretched in the cap cell and suffer a gradual hardening that ends in a very hard structure (mummie). Several studies have demonstrated that colonies that express an efficient hygienic behaviour (uncapping of cell and subsequent removal of dead brood) exhibit a higher resistance to the disease. However, it remains unclear whether the advantage of hygienic colonies over less hygienic ones lies in the ability to remove mummies or in the early detection of infected larvae and its cannibalization before they harden. To elucidate this aspect, the hygienic behaviour of 24 colonies, which were subsequently provided with pollen cakes containig A. apis, was evaluated. The number of mummies and the number of partially cannibalized and whole larvae in uncapped cells were recorded. The most hygienic colonies controlled the disease better. These colonies also had a higher tendency to uncap cells that contained infected larvae and cannibalize them. The presence of A. apis in partially cannibalized and whole larvae in uncapped cells indicate that the advantage of hygienic colonies over less hygienic ones lies in the early detection of infected larvae death and their quick removal from the cell before they become mummies.