Molecular population genetics of the malaria vector Anopheles darlingi in Central and South America

To analyze the genetic relatedness and phylogeographic structure of Anopheles darlingi from 19 localities throughout Central and South America, we used a minimum spanning network, diversity measures, differentiation, neutrality tests, and mismatch distribution with mitochondrial cytochrome oxidase subunit I (COI) sequences. All the Central American haplotypes were separated by seven mutational steps from the South American haplotypes and the FST distance-based neighbor-joining tree showed a primary division between Central and South America, evidence for a putative gene pool division. More ancestral and diverse haplotypes were found in Amazonian and southern Brazil populations, suggesting that Central American populations may have originated in South America. The patterns of the mtDNA haplotype diversity and five of six tests for equilibrium implicate demographic expansion in the South American populations as the historical structure, but mismatch distribution depicts populations at mutation drift equilibrium (MDE). In South America, the departure from equilibrium was consistent with an expansion that occurred during the Pleistocene.     

Growth status of school-age Mayan children in Belize,Central America

This paper reports the growth status of a sample of Mopan Maya school children living in a rural village in Belize. These children exhibit a growth pattern typical of chronic undernutrition, in that a high percentage are stunted (66%), but virtually none are wasted by WHO criteria. The Belize Maya children are compared to four other Amerindian groups and found to be shorter and lighter than a semi-urban group from Guatemala, but taller and heavier than three rural groups from Guatemala and Mexico. The Belize children exhibit the largest arm circumferences among all five groups. This pattern of growth is discussed in light of current ideas concerning the contribution of genetics vs. environment to childhood growth and population wellbeing. © 1994 Wiley-Liss, Inc.     

Women of Belize: Gender and Change in Central America

Women of Belize: Gender and Change in Central America. Irma McClaurin. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 1996.218 pp.     

Nitrogen cycling in the seasonally dry forest zone of Belize,Central America

Two forest associations, cohune palm (Cohune Ridge) and mixed tropical hardwood (High Bush), were assessed on the basis of nutrient movement and storage for their suitability for agriculture. Continuous monitoring of soil nitrogen and leaf litterfall over a one-year period provided information on soil building processes in the forest fallow. Destructive cuts revealed the storage of 690 kg N ha^–1 in the standing biomass of the Cohune forest versus 203 kg N ha^–1 in the High Bush. Litter biomass was exceptionally high in the Cohune Ridge (497 kg ha^–1 dry matter) as compared to the High Bush (65 kg ha^–1 dry matter) and other tropical forests. This is probably because of a low rate of decomposition in the Cohune Ridge palm forest. A substantial reserve of nitrogen is present in both forests' fallows, and this can in part be harvested by the small farmer for crop production.

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Ciclo de nitrógeno en la zona de bosque seco estacional de Belize, América Central

Resumen Dos asociaciones boscosas (Palma Cohune y Matorral Alto) se estudiaron en relación a sus reservas y flujos de nutrimentos y sus posibilidades de aprovechamiento agricola. Se siguió la evolución del nitrógeno en el suelo y en la caida de hojarasca durante un año obteniéndose asi información sobre los procesos pedogenéticos en el barbecho del bosque.A través de muestreos destructivos se encontró que en la biomasa del bosque de Palma Cohune habían 690 kg N ha^–1 y en el Matorral Alto solo 203 kg N ha^–1. La biomasa de hojarasca era excepcionalmente alta en Palma Cohune alcanzando un valor de 497 kg materia seca ha^–1; en el bosque de Matorral Alto la hojarasca era de 65 kg materia seca ha^–1. Esto probablemente se deba a la baja velocidad de descomposición en el caso de la palma.Las reservas sustanciales encontradas en ambos barbechos para el nitrógeno podrían ser parcialmente utilizadas para la producción agrícola campesina.

     

Occurrence of Halophila baillonii meadows in Belize,Central America

Halophila baillonii Ascherson was found in Belize, Central America in 2003 and 2005. The observation extends the known range of this seagrass species to the western Caribbean. H. baillonii was previously recorded only in the eastern Caribbean and at one Pacific site in Panama. Both fruits and flowers of H. baillonii were observed at two locations in Belize in 2005. H. baillonii in Belize is an important food for manatee, forms a productive seagrass-based ecosystem, and is adversely affected by shoreline development and watershed run-off.     

Effect of experimental phosphorus enrichment on oligotrophic tropical marshes in Belize,Central America

Sedges from genus Eleocharisdominate extensive wetlands in the sugar cane growing areas of the Caribbean. Correlative data suggest that macrophytes in these wetlands are phosphorus limited. To determine effects of increased P input that can be expected, e.g. from agricultural runoff, a common sugar cane fertilizer was applied to representative plots in four marl-based and four peat-based marshes. The plots were located in the proximity of patches of Typha domingensis, which has been reported to be able to outcompete Eleocharis under nutrient rich conditions. Responses to the fertilizer treatment were documented as changes in: Plant height, density, biomass, net primary production, nutrient resorption, decomposition, plant and soil nutrient concentrations, percent cover of cyanobacterial mats, and potential colonization by Typha. Additions of phosphorus significantly increased plant density and height and, consequently, the aboveground net primary production. Phosphorus resorption efficiency following senescence was independent of fertilizer addition in Eleocharis but decreased in Typha from the fertilized plots. Phosphorus resorption proficiency was lower in fertilized plots for both Typha and Eleocharis. Decomposition of litter and cellulose assays was significantly faster in fertilized plots. No spontaneous establishment of Typha occurred in the fertilized plots, but survival of transplanted Typha was higher in fertilized plots than in controls. Increased plant density in fertilized plots led to elimination of a key component of these ecosystems, the nitrogen fixing cyanobacterial mats.     

Biting patterns and host preference of Anopheles epiroticus in Chang Island,Trat Province,eastern Thailand

A study of species diversity of Anopheles mosquitoes, biting patterns, and seasonal abundance of important mosquito vectors was conducted in two villages of Chang Island, Trat Province, in eastern Thailand, one located along the coast and the other in the low hills of the central interior of the island. Of 5,399 captured female anophelines, 70.25% belong to the subgenus Cellia and remaining specimens to the subgenus Anopheles. Five important putative malaria vectors were molecularly identified, including Anopheles epiroticus, Anopheles dirus, Anopheles sawadwongporni, Anopheles maculatus, and Anopheles minimus. Anopheles epiroticus was the most commonly collected species in the coastal site, whereas An. dirus was found to be most abundant in the forest‐hill site. From both locations, a greater number of mosquitoes was collected during the dry season compared to the wet. Anopheles epiroticus showed greater exophagic and zoophilic behavior with the highest blood feeding densities occurring between 18:00 and 19:00. In contrast, An. dirus demonstrated an activity peak between midnight and 01:00. We conclude that An. epiroticus and An. dirus, in coastal and inland areas, respectively, appear to be the most epidemiologically important malaria vectors on Chang Island. As no studies of vector competency specific to Chang Island have been conducted, our conclusions that these two species play a primary role in malaria transmission are based on evidence from other localities in Thailand and mainland Southeast Asia. This information serves as a basis for designing improved vector control programs that target specific species, and if integrated with other interventions could result in the elimination of malaria transmission on the island.     

Ecology and behaviour of the Jaguar (Panthers onca) in Belize, Central America

Five adult male Jaguars and a translocated subadult female Jaguar were captured and followed by radio-telemetry in Cockscomb Basin, Belize. One adult male Jaguar, two resident female Jaguars, and a Puma were followed only by their tracks. Radio-collared males maintained overlapping ranges of 28–40 km², while resident females moved in minimum areas of 10 km² within the ranges of individual males. Despite range overlap, evidence of aggression or sign of more than one large cat in the same area simultaneously was uncommon. Such avoidance behaviour suggested some means of communication. Visual marking in the form of faeces and scrapes were found uncovered along roads and trails in areas of overlap between the cats; such marking could have helped in boundary delineation as well as spatial and temporal positioning. Males often remained in small areas of 2·5 km² for up to two weeks, a behaviour made possible by abundant prey. This behaviour may have facilitated avoidance with other Jaguars. Faecal analysis indicated opportunistic feeding on 17 prey species. Armadillo, Paca and brocket deer accounted for 94% of the available terrestrial prey and comprised 70% of the identified prey in the faeces. All Jaguars were primarily nocturnal, though activity varied between animals. The translocated female showed changes in activity patterns when feeding upon cattle. At least one Puma travelled within the ranges of several male Jaguars and appeared to be feeding on smaller prey items. The behavioural and ecological plasticity exhibited by the Jaguars in this study is beneficial for an animal whose habitat is rapidly diminishing.     

Diet of Adult and Nestling Scarlet Macaws in Southwest Belize,Central America1

Scarlet Macaw diet was determined during the breeding season of February–June 1998. Macaws were primarily granivorous, exhibiting a narrow diet during the dry season, with low variety of food items in adult and nestling diets. Seeds of Cnidoscolus spp. and Schizolobium parahybum, tree species characteristic of floodplain forest, were predominant in nestling diets, and may provide protein‐rich food resources. River floodplains provided important nest sites and food resources for Scarlet Macaws during the breeding season.     

Morphological and biochemical analyses of the salivary glands of the malaria vector, Anopheles darlingi.

Adult Anopheles darlingi salivary glands are paired organs located on either side of the esophagus. The male glands consist of a single small lobe. The female gland is composed of two lateral lobes, with distinct proximal and distal portions, and a medial lobe. The lobes are acinar structures, organized as a unicellular epithelium that surrounds a salivary canal. The general cellular architecture is similar among the lobes, with secretory material appearing as large masses that push the cellular structures to the periphery of the organ. Cells of the proximal-lateral lobes show asynchronous cycles of secretory activity and contain secretory masses with finely filamentous aspect. In the distal-lateral lobes, cells display synchronous cycles of activity, and have a dense secretory product with mottled pattern. Cells of the medial lobe have secretory masses uniformly stained and highly electrondense. Biochemical analysis of the adult female salivary glands revealed apyrase, alpha-glucosidase and lysozyme activities. Alpha-glucosidase and lysozyme activities are detected mostly in the proximal lobes while apyrase is mainly accumulated in the distal lobes. This differential distribution of the analyzed enzymes reflects a specialization of different regions for sugar and blood feeding. Thus, the morphological differences observed in the lobes correlate with functional ones.     

Abundance and distribution of hydroids in a mangrove ecosystem at Twin Cays,Belize, Central America

Qualitative and quantitative collecting was undertaken in 1987 to determine the species composition, abundance, and distribution of hydroids in a mangrove system at Twin Cays, Belize. Of 49 species identified, the 5 most frequent were Ventromma halecioides, Nemalecium sp., Clytia hemisphaerica, Dynamena crisioides and Halopteris diaphana. Line-transect census data and qualitative observations showed that the hydroid fauna was sparse in sheltered, still-water areas of the mangal, but relatively abundant and diverse in areas exposed to waves and/or tidal currents. Species composition and relative abundance varied with depth at stations in exposed locations and in tidal creeks and channels. Although Turritopsoides brehmeri is known only from Twin Cays at present, it seems improbable that any of the species is restricted to mangrove ecosystems.     

Holocene trends in distribution and diversity of benthic foraminifera assemblages in atoll lagoons,Belize, Central America

Seven benthic foraminiferal assemblages were identified in vibracores through Holocene lagoons of three Belize atoll lagoons (Glovers Reef, Lighthouse Reef, Turneffe Islands). These include (1) the low-diversity Cribroelphidium assemblage (2) the Cribroelphidium-Elphidium assemblage (3) the Quinqueloculina-Triloculina-Peneroplis assemblage (4) the high-diversity miliolid assemblage (5) the Archaias-miliolid assemblage (6) the low-diversity miliolid assemblage, and (7) the mixed assemblage. Altogether, 109 species and 56 genera were identified. The highest diversities are observed in the largest lagoon (Turneffe Islands), whereas one of the smaller lagoons (Glovers Reef) exhibits the lowest diversities during the Holocene. No significant changes in diversity over time occur, however, a slight trend to higher diversity may be observed through the Holocene, suggesting that the foraminiferal faunas in the atolls are in a diversification stage. Faunal diversity in atoll lagoons appears to be controlled largely by habitat size, habitat heterogeneity, and water circulation. Habitat age and water depth only play minor roles. Substrate texture, water depth, and turbidity influence the predominant modes of life of benthic foraminifera encountered in the lagoons (epifaunal versus infaunal versus symbiont-bearing). Time-averaging effects were not observed, even though lagoonal sedimentation rates fluctuate in individual cores and the three lagoons, and despite the fact that sediments are modified through bioturbation by callianassid shrimps. This finding underlines the potential of benthic foraminifera for paleoecological studies in the fossil record of reefs and carbonate platforms.     

Characterization of artificial larval habitats of Anopheles darlingi (Diptera: Culicidae) in the Brazilian Central Amazon

Mosquitoes belonging to the Anopheles genus are of great relevance in the epidemiology and transmission of malaria, with their larval phase developing in clean waters in the presence of organic matter. However, the human presence in the Amazon has increasingly influenced the emergence of new breeding sites and larval habitats, such as clay pits, fish ponds and dams, among others. The objective of the study was to characterize mosquito larval habitats using the biotic and abiotic parameters in the metropolitan area of Manaus. We collected in 23 artificial larval habitats in Manaus, classified in dams, fish ponds and clay pits. Water samples, Anopheles larvae, aquatic macrophytes and limnological parameters were collected from each artificial larval habitat. The Larvae Index per Man/Hour and canonical correspondence analysis were used for data analysis. Results indicate that artificial larval habitats with characteristics similar to natural sites present higher larval density, displaying a high abundance of An. triannulatus and An. darlingi. More than 90% of the determined limnological parameters were in agreement with the environmental resolution stipulated by the Brazilian environmental resolution, while pH, dissolved oxygen and phosphorus levels were below the established limits at some of the larval habitats. Conductivity, total suspended solids and phosphorus were positively correlated to the presence of An. albitarsis, An. peryassui and An. nuneztovari in fish ponds, and An. trianulatus and An. braziliensis in dams. Thus, the evaluated limnological variables and habitat structure explain Anopheles species distribution in artificial larval habitats in the metropolitan Manaus region.     

Insecticide susceptibility of Anopheles coluzzii and Anopheles gambiae mosquitoes in Ibadan,Southwest Nigeria

The emergence of insecticide resistance in Anopheles (Diptera: Culicidae) mosquitoes has great implications for malaria control in Nigeria. This study aimed to determine the dynamics of insecticide susceptibility levels and the frequency of knock‐down resistance (kdr) mutations (L1014F) in wild Anopheles coluzzii Coetzee & Wilkerson sp. n. and Anopheles gambiae Giles from the Ojoo and Bodija areas of Ibadan, in southwest Nigeria. Insecticide susceptibility to pyrethroids, organophosphates, carbamates and organochlorines was assessed using World Health Organization (WHO) bioassays. A subset of the mosquitoes exposed to pyrethroids and DDT was used for species and molecular form identification; kdr genotyping was determined using the TaqMan real‐time polymerase chain reaction assay. The mosquitoes were resistant to pyrethroids and DDT but completely susceptible to organophosphates and carbamates. Bodija samples (n = 186) consisted of An. gambiae (91.4%) and An. coluzzii (8.1%) and included one An. coluzzii/An. gambiae hybrid specimen. All mosquitoes screened in Ojoo (n = 26) were An. gambiae. The 1014F kdr mutation was detected at frequencies of 24.5 and 5.8% in Bodija and Ojoo, respectively. No correlation was observed between kdr genotypes and resistance phenotypes. The results indicate that metabolic resistance probably plays an important role in the development of resistance and highlight the need to implement insecticide resistance management strategies.     

Location of ribosomal genes in the chromosomes of Anopheles darlingi and Anopheles nuneztovari (Diptera,Culicidae) from the Brazilian Amazon

Fluorescence in situ hybridization of Anopheles darlingi and A. nuneztovari demonstrated nucleolar organizer region activity at the end of the fourth larval instar, when the nucleolar organizer regions underwent gradual condensation. The heteromorphic sex chromosomes showed intraindividual size variation in the rDNA blocks located in the pericentromeric region and this coincided with the location of constitutive heterochromatin (C-banding).     

Observations on the distribution of anophelines in Suriname with particular reference to the malaria vector Anopheles darlingi

A study was made on the distribution of anophelines in Suriname with special emphasis on the principal malaria vector Anopheles darlingi and on the occurrence of other possible vector species. Peridomestic human bait collections of adult mosquitoes and collections of larvae were made in many localities with a recent history of malaria transmission. Stable populations of An. darlingi were only found in the interior, south of the limit of tidal influence, due to year-round availability of breeding habitats in quiet partly sunlit places in flooded forest areas and along river banks. In the area with tidal movement of the rivers, breeding is limited to flooded areas in the wet season. Anopheles darlingi was only incidentally collected in low densities. In the interior, malaria transmission occurred in all places where An. darlingi was found. The absence of malaria transmission along the Upper Suriname River could be explained by the absence of An. darlingi. In the malaria endemic areas, An. darlingi was the most numerous mosquito biting on man. In the tidal region, malaria outbreaks are infrequent and might be explained by the temporary availability of favourable breeding habitats for An. darlingi. However, evidence is insufficient to incriminate An. darlingi as the vector of malaria in this region and the possible vectorial role of other anophelines is discussed.     

Thysanopterans of the generic group Anaphothrips (Thripidae: Thripinae) with emphasis in Central America

A taxonomic revision and phylogenetic analysis of the generic group Anaphothrips are presented. Several genera in Central America are closely related to this generic group. Based on the analysis of characters and its possible evolution, the new genus Nakaharathrips has been segregated from Anaphothrips, and the taxonomic status of the subspecies of Aurantothrips has been changed to the species level. The phylogenetic analysis shows a close relationship between the genera Anaphothrips, Ranjana, Nakaharathrips n.gen., Aurantothrips, Nicolemma n.gen., Ameranathrips, Baileyothrips and Gonzalezya n.gen., where the first lineage is formed by the genera (Ranjana (Aurantothrips+Nicolemma)) and the second lineage contains the genera [(Anaphothrips+Nakaharathrips)(Baileyothrips (Ameranathrips+Gonzalezya)].     

Interactions of human malaria parasites, Plasmodium wVaxand P.falciparum, with the midgut of Anopheles mosquitoes

Abstract Present understanding of the development of sexual stages of the human malaria parasites Plasmodium vivax and P.falciparum in the Anopheles vector is reviewed, with particular reference to the role of the mosquito midgut in establishing an infection. The sexual stages of the parasite, the gametocytes, are formed in human erythrocytes. The changes in temperature and pH encountered by the gametocyte induce gametogenesis in the lumen of the midgut. Macromolecules derived from mosquito tissue and second messenger pathways regulate events leading to fertilization. In An.tessellatus the movement of the ookinete from the lumen to the midgut epithelium is linked to the release of trypsin in the midgut and the peritrophic matrix is not a firm barrier to this movement. The passage of the P. vivax ookinete through the peritrophic matrix may take place before the latter is fully formed. The late ookinete development in P.falciparum requires chitinase to facilitate penetration of the peritrophic matrix. Recognition sites for the ookinetes are present on the midgut epithelial cells. N-acetyl glucosamine residues in the oligosaccharide side chains of An.tessellatus midgut glycoproteins and peritrophic matrix proteoglycan may function as recognition sites for P.vivax and P.falciparum ookinetes. It is possible that ookinetes penetrating epithelial cells produce stress in the vector. Mosquito molecules may be involved in oocyst development in the basal lamina, and encapsulation of the parasite occurs in vectors that are refractory to the parasite. Detailed knowledge of vector-parasite interactions, particularly in the midgut and the identification of critical mosquito molecules offers prospects for manipulating the vector for the control of malaria.