A landscape-level assessment of Asian elephant habitat,its population and elephant–human conflict in the Anamalai hill ranges of southern Western Ghats,India

Spatial information at the landscape scale is extremely important for conservation planning, especially in the case of long-ranging vertebrates. The biodiversity-rich Anamalai hill ranges in the Western Ghats of southern India hold a viable population for the long-term conservation of the Asian elephant. Through rapid but extensive field surveys we mapped elephant habitat, corridors, vegetation and land-use patterns, estimated the elephant population density and structure, and assessed elephant–human conflict across this landscape. GIS and remote sensing analyses indicate that elephants are distributed among three blocks over a total area of about 4600 km². Approximately 92% remains contiguous because of four corridors; however, under 4000 km² of this area may be effectively used by elephants. Nine landscape elements were identified, including five natural vegetation types, of which tropical moist deciduous forest is dominant. Population density assessed through the dung count method using line transects covering 275 km of walk across the effective elephant habitat of the landscape yielded a mean density of 1.1 (95% CI = 0.99–1.2) elephant/km². Population structure from direct sighting of elephants showed that adult male elephants constitute just 2.9% and adult females 42.3% of the population with the rest being sub-adults (27.4%), juveniles (16%) and calves (11.4%). Sex ratios show an increasing skew toward females from juvenile (1:1.8) to sub-adult (1:2.4) and adult (1:14.7) indicating higher mortality of sub-adult and adult males that is most likely due to historical poaching for ivory. A rapid questionnaire survey and secondary data on elephant–human conflict from forest department records reveals that villages in and around the forest divisions on the eastern side of landscape experience higher levels of elephant–human conflict than those on the western side; this seems to relate to a greater degree of habitat fragmentation and percentage farmers cultivating annual crops in the east. We provide several recommendations that could help maintain population viability and reduce elephant–human conflict of the Anamalai elephant landscape.     

Intestinal ciliate fauna of the Asian elephant from Gaziantep,Turkey and the description of Brevitentaculum antebum n. g., n. sp.

The aims of this investigation were to identify and quantify ciliates inhabiting the large intestine of Asian elephants living in Gaziantep Zoo, Turkey, and to describe a new suctorian genus and species. Species composition and distribution of intestinal ciliates voided in the feces of two Asian elephants were examined. Fifteen species of intestinal ciliates, representing 7 genera, were identified. One new suctorian genus and species, Brevitentaculum antebum n. g., n. sp., was described. This new species has two short truncated terminal projections, with two longitudinally lined bands located between the two projections, near the convex surface of the cell. Short clavate-like tentacles are in two fascicles near each base of terminal projections on the flattened surface of the body. Ciliate densities in the two fecal samples were 4.5 × 10⁴ mL⁻¹ and 10 × 10⁴ mL⁻¹.     

Anthropogenic driven range expansion of Asian elephant Elephas maximus in an agricultural landscape and its consequences in South West Bengal,India

Alterations of the geographical ranges of animals have become a reason for interactions with humans, leading to various consequences. We describe the pattern of range expansion of Asian elephants (Elephas maximus) and implications for human-elephant interactions in the agricultural landscape of South West Bengal, India. We enquired about past and current sightings of Asian elephants from local people to gather information on range expansion from the 1950 s to 2018. We also collected the records of human deaths and injuries by elephants from 2010 to 2018 from the records of the Forest Department. We employed an occupancy framework to understand the probability of the occurrence of elephants in the landscape from 2010 to 2018. The range of elephants in the landscape increased from ∼ 1200 km² in the 1950–60 s to ∼ 13200 km² by 2010–18. The calculated probability of use of grid cells was 36 % and the forest edge had a high influence on the space usage by the elephants. Elephants occurred in an average of 26 grid cells per month, and the number of grid cells with elephants did not differ between the months. A total of 640 attacks on humans occurred, which significantly varied between the years. The probability of elephant occurrence in a grid cell was the major determinant factor for the elephant attacks on humans. Although people respect elephants, there is a sense of intolerance towards them if they enter the crop fields, owing to the small land holdings and the incapacity to endure the monetary losses of the farmers.     

Intestinal ciliated protozoa of the Asian elephant Elephas maximus Linnaeus, 1758 with the description of Triplumaria izmirae n. sp.

Species composition and distribution of intestinal ciliates excreted in the feces of three Asian elephants living in Sasalı National Park, Izmir, Turkey, were investigated. Seven ciliate genera consisting of 36 species were identified. This is the first report on intestinal ciliates in elephants living in Turkey; one new species, T. izmirae n. sp., was described. This new species has a special macronucleus shape, skeletal rod plates with two wings and posterior contractile vacuole lying beneath the dorsal left base of the tail flap. The buccal infraciliary bands of T. izmirae are similar to those of T. selenica and T. suwako known from elephants. Triplumaria ovina and Raabena bella occurred in highest percentages in two elephants, whereas Latteuria polyfaria was highest in the third one. Ciliate densities in the three fecal samples were 3.5, 1.5 and 5.0 × 10⁴/mL.     

Modelling potential impacts of climate change on the bioclimatic envelope and conservation of the Maned Wolf (Chrysocyon brachyurus)

Forecasting the influence of climatic changes on the distribution of the Maned Wolf (Chrysocyon brachyurus) is important for the conservation of the species. We explored the environmental characteristics than best explain the current distribution of the species, modelled the past and present distribution, projected the niche model into the future, and identified suitable areas for conservation. Niche modelling was performed using Maxent and 21 environmental variables. For past conditions, we considered the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM) and the mid-Holocene (MH) climates. For future conditions, we used the A2a greenhouse gas emission scenario for 2050. Four General Circulation Models (FGOALS 1.0, HADCM3, IPSL-CM4 and MIROC 3.2) were used. The resulting niche model (AUC = 0.89 ± 0.02) predicts maximum probability of presence at precipitation of 106 mm during the coldest quarter, of 396 mm during the warmest quarter, and in totally flat areas. The suitable area for the Maned Wolf currently covers 4,320,364 km². For the LGM, there were inter-model differences in predicted areas (from 819,324 km² to 6,395,886 km²) and in geographic location. The MH models showed drastic changes with respect to the present and considerable inter-model variation. Predictions for 2050 show significant (at least 33%) reductions in distribution. Only a minor fraction (39%) of the current distribution can be considered stable for the period LGM-2050. The FGOALS model was the best option for projecting species occurrence into the future because it included the three localities known for the Maned Wolf from the late Pleistocene and predicts stable areas that coincide with spatial patterns of genetic diversity. The FGOALS projection for 2050 predicts a 33% reduction in suitable habitats, indicating some stable areas (central South America) that will probably be key sites for the conservation of the species.     

Ranging behavior of the Asian elephant in Sri Lanka

We studied the ranging patterns of 10 elephants in and around the Yala protected area complex, southern Sri Lanka, using VHF radio telemetry. All tracked elephants displayed similar ranging patterns. The observed home ranges were small (mean=115.2±64.0 km²) relative to reported home ranges in India, possibly in response to high habitat productivity and abundant perennial water sources. Elephants showed high fidelity to their ranges. Home ranges had relatively large core areas, suggesting intensive use of habitat. No geographically distinct seasonal ranges or migratory behavior was observed. Home range overlap was high, and territoriality was absent. Male musth ranges were considerably larger than non-musth ranges and may signify mate searching. Most elephants ranged both in and outside protected areas, suggesting that resources outside protected areas were important for their survival. Thus, translocating and restricting elephants to protected areas will be detrimental to their survival, as it limits resource access. The ranging patterns of Asian elephants suggest that conservation of the species requires their management both in and outside protected areas.     

Modelling large spotted genet (Genetta tigrina) and slender mongoose (Galerella sanguinea) occupancy in a heterogeneous landscape of South Africa

Drivers of distribution patterns of poorly known species are among the most important aspects in conservation biology. We studied the proportion of area occupied by the large spotted genet (Genetta tigrina) and the slender mongoose (Galerella sanguine) in response to land use variables using camera-trapping data in Drakensberg Midlands, South Africa. Average estimated occupancy of large spotted genet and slender mongoose were 0.42 ± 0.10 and 0.41 ± 0.04 respectively using single season occupancy models. Altitudinal variation was found to be significant in the distribution of both species, along with human abundance for genet and availability of bushland for mongoose. Autumn influenced detection probability of both species negatively, while summer influenced slender mongoose positively. Relative human abundance was positively associated with detection probability of slender mongoose, and for large spotted genet, availability of bushland influenced positively while relative abundance of jackal (Canis mesomelas) influenced negatively. Occurrence of both species suggests that high elevations may not provide favourable ecological conditions, and bush cover appeared to be favourable habitats for both species. Either positive occurrence or detection of small carnivores to human abundance indicated their tendency to subsist in low-lying human populated areas. The present study shows the influence of a range of factors on the distribution of lesser known carnivores.     

Seasonal abundance and activity of pill millipedes (Arthrosphaera magna) in mixed plantation and semi-evergreen forest of southern India

Seasonal occurrence and activity of endemic pill millipedes (Arthrosphaera magna) were examined in organically managed mixed plantation and semi-evergreen forest reserve in southwest India between November 1996 and September 1998. Abundance and biomass of millipedes were highest in both habitats during monsoon season. Soil moisture, conductivity, organic carbon, phosphate, potassium, calcium and magnesium were higher in plantation than in forest. Millipede abundance and biomass were about 12 and 7 times higher in plantation than in forest, respectively (P < 0.001). Their biomass increased during post-monsoon, summer and monsoon in the plantation (P < 0.001), but not in forest (P > 0.05). Millipede abundance and biomass were positively correlated with rainfall (P = 0.01). Besides rainfall, millipedes in plantation were positively correlated with soil moisture as well as temperature (P = 0.001). Among the associated fauna with pill millipedes, earthworms rank first followed by soil bugs in both habitats. Since pill millipedes are sensitive to narrow ecological changes, the organic farming strategies followed in mixed plantation and commonly practiced in South India seem not deleterious for the endangered pill millipedes Arthrosphaera and reduce the risk of local extinctions.     

A human-induced landscape of fear influences foraging behavior of brown bears

Animals adapt their foraging behavior to variations in food availability and predation risk. In Sweden, brown bears (Ursus arctos) depend on a nearly continuous intake of berries, especially bilberries (Vaccinium myrtillus) during late summer and early autumn to fatten up prior to hibernation. This overlaps with the bear hunting season that starts on 21 August. Bilberry occurrence varies across space, as does human-induced mortality risk. Here, we hypothesize that brown bears select for areas with a high probability of bilberry occurrence across a boreal forest ecosystem in Sweden (H1), and that human-induced mortality risk reduces bear selection for bilberries (H2). In addition, we hypothesized that bears that survived the hunting season avoided bilberry areas associated with high risk, whereas bears that were later killed selected more strongly for berries and less against risk prior to the hunting season (H3). To evaluate our hypotheses, we used resource selection functions to contrast bear GPS relocation data (N = 35, 2012–2015) and random positions within the bearś home range with generalized linear mixed effect models against two focal variables: a map predicting bilberry occurrence and a map predicting human-induced mortality risk. We found that bears selected for areas with a high probability of bilberry occurrence (supporting H1), but avoided these areas if they were associated with and high risk of hunting mortality (supporting H2). The killed and surviving bears did not differ in their selection for bilberries, but they did differ in their selection against risk (partially supporting H3). Surviving bears strongly avoided high risk areas, whereas killed bears responded less to risk and selected for high-risk areas with a low probability of bilberry occurrence. This suggests that killed bears selected for other food sources than berries in high risk areas, which exposed them to human hunters. We conclude that bears respond to a landscape of fear during the berry season and that different foraging strategies may have a direct impact on individual mortality during the hunting season.     

Habitat suitability assessment of Sichuan sika deer in Tiebu Nature Reserve during periods of green and dry grass

Habitat suitability assessment is an essential and dynamic research method for determining and evaluating the environmental pressures faced by wildlife. From March to November 2011, we investigated the quality of habitat available to Sichuan sika deer (Cervus nippon sichuanicus) in Tiebu Nature Reserve, Ruoergai County, Sichuan Province, China. A habitat evaluation model established by the fuzzy assignment quadrature method was used to assess habitat suitability for Sichuan sika deer within the reserve by using the GIS spatial analysis function. The results showed that the area of actual available habitat was 220.8 km² during the wet season and 213.2 km² during the dry season, accounting for 80.8% and 78.02% of the total nature reserve area, respectively. The area of suitable habitat for Sichuan sika deer was much lower, 128.01 km² during the wet season and 109.17 km² during the dry season, accounting for 46.84% and 39.95% of the total nature reserve area respectively. The difference between available and suitable habitat is likely due to potentially good habitat having been lost as a result of human disturbance. Lost habitat makes up 4.55% of the total area while grass is green and 5.52% while grass is dry. Human disturbance levels in the form of roads and residential areas were constant throughout the year, but grazing by domestic animals had a higher impact during the dry season. Habitat suitability during this time, already reduced by the withering of the grass, was thus further reduced by the grazing of livestock.     

The effect of forest fragments on abundance,diversity and species composition of predatory ants in sugarcane fields

Habitat loss and fragmentation have gradually caused loss of diversity and consequently the decline of ecological services. This study aimed to evaluate the effect of tropical forest fragments as natural habitats (river valley fragments and plateau fragments) on the community of predatory and omnivorous ants in nearby sugarcane fields. Twenty fields adjacent to these fragments were selected and evaluated one (dry season) and four months (rainy season) after harvest. In each field, ants were sampled in five linear plots (10 m inside the fragment, 0 m (field path between field and fragment), 5 m, 50 m and 100 m inside the crop fields). Each plot comprised ten sardine baits in a row parallel to the field edge. Species richness and frequency of ant species decreased with increasing distance from the forest fragments. Inside fields, species richness and frequency were higher during the period of vegetative growth (rainy season) than after harvest (dry season). Ant communities of sugarcane fields and forest fragments were more similar later in the season than directly after sugarcane harvest suggesting recolonization of the fields from the fragments. Several ant species were limited to forest fragments after harvest but occurred later in the season also in sugarcane fields confirming the potential contribution of fragments to the recolonization process and therefore to biological control of sugarcane-dominated pest insects.     

Effect of early dry season induced by the Three Gorges Dam on the soil microbial biomass and bacterial community structure in the Dongting Lake wetland

In this study, we used the soil microbial biomass (SMB) and the bacterial community structure as indicators to determine the potential ecological responses of the Dongting Lake wetland (China) to the early dry season that has been induced by the Three Gorges Dam (TGD), the largest hydroelectric project in the world. We measured the soil properties, SMB and bacterial community structure for samples E0, E20 and E40 (for which the dry season arrived early by 0, 20 and 40 days, respectively). The results indicated a significant increase in SMB as the dry season occurred increasingly earlier. The microbial biomass carbon (MBC) was used as a representative for the SMB and increased for the samples in the following order: E0 < E20 < E40. The bacterial 16S rDNA gene copy number changed similarly to the MBC. Significant changes were also observed in the soil bacterial community structure. The bacterial community structure of E40 was more diverse than that of E20, which was similar to that of E0. The relationship between the bacterial community composition and the soil properties was evaluated by redundancy analysis (RDA). The results indicated that the lead time of the dry season was the controlling influence on the soil bacterial community structure.     

Escape protein supplementation of growing steers grazing stargrass

A grazing trial utilizing 35 individually supplemented growing steers (211±42 kg initial body weight (BW)) was conducted to study the effect of supplemental escape protein on the performance of steers grazing on stargrass (Cynodon plectostachyus) during the dry season. N in supplements was 100%, 50%, or 0% natural protein (bloodmeal, coconut meal, and soybean meal), and 0%, 50% or 100% urea. All steers received 2 kg of supplement dry matter (DM) (2.2% N) daily during the 90 days of the experiment. Steers fed the urea supplement had the lowest ADG (0.97 kg day⁻¹). There was a linear (P<0.05) response in ADG to the natural protein level (50 and 100%) in supplements containing bloodmeal (1.11 and 1.21 kg day⁻¹) and coconut meal (1.05 and 1.21 kg day⁻¹), but no response was observed with soybean meal (1.01 and 1.0 kg day⁻¹). Forage intake was not affected by supplementation. As a result of the growth response observed for supplements containing bloodmeal and coconut meal above the urea-based and soybean meal supplements, it was concluded that growing ruminants grazing stargrass in the dry season were deficient in escape protein. ©1997 Elsevier Science B.V.     

Impacts of forest gaps on butterfly diversity in a Bornean peat-swamp forest

Forest degradation is leading to widespread negative impacts on biodiversity in South-east Asia. Tropical peat-swamp forests are one South-east Asian habitat in which insect communities, and the impacts of forest degradation on them, are poorly understood. To address this information deficit, we investigated the impacts of forest gaps on fruit-feeding butterflies in the Sabangau peat-swamp forest, Central Kalimantan, Indonesia. Fruit-baited traps were used to monitor butterflies for 3 months during the 2009 dry season. A network of 34 traps (n_gap = 17, n_shade = 17) was assembled in a grid covering a 35 ha area. A total of 445 capture events were recorded, comprising 384 individuals from 8 species and 2 additional species complexes classified to genera. On an inter-site scale, canopy traps captured higher species richness than understory traps; however, understory traps captured higher diversity within each site. Species richness was positively correlated with percent canopy cover and comparisons of diversity indices support these findings. Coupled with results demonstrating morphological differences in thorax volume and forewing length between species caught in closed-canopy traps vs. those in gaps, this indicates that forest degradation has a profound effect on butterfly communities in this habitat, with more generalist species being favored in disturbed conditions. Further studies are necessary to better understand the influences of macro-habitat quality and seasonal variations on butterfly diversity and community composition in South-east Asian peat-swamp forests.     

From water to edible fish. Transfer of metals and metalloids in the San Roque Reservoir (Córdoba,Argentina). Implications associated with fish consumption

The concentration of Mn, Fe, Zn, Cu, Cd, Cr, Ni, Ag, Mo, Nd, Al, Ce, As, Sr, Pb, Pt and Hg was analysed in water, sediments, and aquatic organisms from the San Roque Reservoir (Córdoba-Argentina), sampled during the wet and dry season, to evaluate their transfer through the food web. Stable nitrogen (δ¹⁵N) isotopes were used to investigate trophic interactions. According to this, samples were divided into three trophic groups: plankton, shrimp (Palaemonetes argentinus) and fish (Silverside, Odontesthes bonariensis). Liver and gills are the main heavy metal storage tissues in fish. Hg and As concentrations in the muscle of O. bonariensis exceed the Oral Reference doses for metals established by USEPA (2009). Trophic magnification factors (TMFs) for each element were determined from the slope of the regression between trace element concentrations and δ¹⁵N. Calculated TMFs showed fundamental differences in the trophodynamics of the studied elements during the wet and dry season in the San Roque Reservoir. Concentrations of Ni, Cd, Cr, Al, Mn, Fe, Mo, Ce, Nd, Pt and Pb during both seasons, and Sr during the dry season, showed statistically significant decreases (TMF < 1) with increasing trophic levels. Thus these elements were trophically diluted in the San Roque food chain. Conversely, Cu, Ag and As (dry season) showed no significant relationships with trophic levels. Among the elements studied, Hg in the wet season, and Zn in the dry season were the only ones showing a statistically significant increase (TMF > 1) in concentration with trophic level. Current results trigger the need for further studies to establish differential behaviour with different species within the aquatic web, particularly when evaluating the transfer of toxic elements to edible organisms, which could pose health risks to humans.     

Trophic ecology of the Grey Wagtail Motacilla cinerea before and during the breeding season in the region of Bejaia (Algeria)

The diet composition of the Grey Wagtail Motacilla cinerea of the Babor Range is followed by analysis of faecal samples (90 faeces) before and during the breeding season 2010. The Grey Wagtail's diet varies depending on the stage of the breeding cycle at the southern edge of their breeding area in North Africa (Bejaia). The diet consists predominantly of aquatic preys (51.79%), with Coleoptera being the most frequent constituent (n = 331, 45.5%). During the pre-laying period (February–March), the diet was variable (91 prey-taxa and H’ = 3,36 bits) and preys of medium size (5 to 8 mm) were most common. During the incubation period (April–May), preys were mainly aquatic (60%) and larger (20 to 32 mm). At the end of the breeding season (June–July), there was a greater occurrence of terrestrial preys (31 aquatic versus 30 terrestrial taxa).     

Nutrient concentrations in tidal creeks as indicators of the water quality role of mangrove wetlands in Southwest Florida

Coastal mangroves have the potential to improve the water quality of urban and rural runoff before it is discharged into adjacent coastal bays and oceans; but they also can be impaired by excessive pollutants from upstream. Nutrients (phosphorus and nitrogen), salinity, and other water quality parameters were measured in five mangrove tidal creeks in different hydrogeomorphic and urbanization settings during high and low tides over a calendar year of wet (June and August 2015) and dry (February and April 2016) seasons in the Greater Naples Bay area in Southwest Florida, USA. Nutrient concentrations (ave. ± std error) in the tidal creeks were 0.055 ± 0.008 mg-P/L for total phosphorus (TP) and 0.610 ± 0.020 mg-N/L for total nitrogen (TN), with an average N:P ratio of 11.4:1. Average wet season TP (0.075 ± 0.010 mg-P/L) was significantly higher than the dry season TP (0.033 ± 0.003 mg-P/L; p < 0.01, f = 15.17, f_crit = 3.89) and the average wet season TN (0.75 ± 0.03 mg-N/L) was significantly higher than dry season TN (0.52 ± 0.02 mg/L; p < 0.01, f = 64.14, f_crit = 3.89), suggesting that urban stormwater runoff is directly or indirectly affecting the nutrient conditions in these mangroves. Significant differences in nutrient concentrations between low tide and high tide were not found for either TP (p = 0.43, f = .63, f_crit = 3.88) or TN (p = 0.20, f = 1.66, f_crit = 3.89). These differences were confirmed by a PCA and cluster analyses, which found differences to be seasonal. We could not conclude from these results whether these five mangrove wetlands were sources nor sinks of nutrients based simply on the measurement of nutrient concentrations. But we illustrated that nutrient concentrations were indicators of the mangroves’ hydrogeomorphic settings, their tidal fluxes from Naples Bay, and the Bay's upstream watersheds, and less by direct urban runoff.     

Diversity of fungal endophytes in shrubby medicinal plants of Malnad region,Western Ghats,Southern India

A total of 6125 fungal endophytes were isolated from 9000 leaf segments of 15 medicinal shrubs growing in Malnad region of Western Ghats, Southern India, during winter, monsoon, and summer seasons. These fungal isolates belonged to Ascomycota (8.6 %), Coelomycetes (26.0 %), Hyphomycetes (28.0 %), Mucoromycotina (0.3 %) and sterile forms (4.9 %). Alternaria, Chaetomium, Fusarium, Colletotrichum, Cladosporium, Penicillium, Phyllosticta and Xylaria were the most frequently isolated. Significantly more isolates were obtained during the winter season than monsoon and summer seasons.     

Monitoring of aquatic macroinvertebrates as bioindicator for assessing the health of wetlands: A case study in the Central Himalayas,India

The present contribution encompasses the first case study on the aquatic macroinvertebrates as bioindicators for assessing the health of Asan wetland (area 3.2 km²), located in the foothills of Central Himalayas, India. Monthly sampling from all the sampling sites in five replicates was made for a period of 12 months (July 2002–June 2003) at 9:00–11:00 h. A total of 32 species of macroinvertebrates were found with the Ephemeroptera and Gastropoda being the most abundant component of invertebrates communities. The Shannon–Wiener diversity index calculated for macroinvertebrates ranged from 3.50 to 4.61. Seasonal fluctuations in the density of macroinvertebrates revealed maximum density (451–503 ind m^?2) during winter and minimum (126–143 ind m^?2) during monsoon season. The density of macroinvertebrates was influenced by the anthropogenic disturbances and water level fluctuations causing disturbance in the littoral zone of the wetland. The statistical relationships between turbidity, transparency, dissolved oxygen and water temperature and macroinvertebrates of Asan wetland were also computed for assessing the impact of anthropogenic disturbances on macroinvertebrates.     

Modelling the spatial distribution of linear landscape elements in Europe

Linear landscape elements, such as ditches, hedgerows, lines of trees and field margins, provide important habitats and ecosystem services and function as ecological infrastructure for species within agricultural landscapes. Spatial maps of the distribution of these elements are needed to better represent landscape structure within regional scale environmental assessments. We present wall-to-wall maps for green lines, ditches and grass margins for Europe, using spatial modelling of ground observations on linear features from the 2009 LUCAS (land use/cover area frame statistical survey) database. We compare different spatial interpolation methods, ranging from spatial autocorrelation-based methods to methods that explain the occurrence of elements based on biophysical and socio-economic information. Our results are 1 km² resolution maps of the occurrence of linear landscape elements for Europe. Independent validation of green lines based on aerial photographs showed the best results for interpolation based on regionally estimated regressions relating the occurrence of landscape elements to environmental and socio-economic location factors. The results confirm the importance of the underlying biophysical and socio-economic factors on the presence and abundance of linear landscape elements. However, the total explanatory strength of the considered factors is moderate and a considerable uncertainty in the exact distribution remains.