The impact of trade openness on global carbon dioxide emissions: Evidence from the top ten emitters among developing countries

This study aims to analyze the relationship between carbon dioxide (CO₂) emissions, trade openness, real income and energy consumption in the top ten CO₂ emitters among the developing countries; namely China, India, South Korea, Brazil, Mexico, Indonesia, South Africa, Turkey, Thailand and Malaysia over the period of 1971–2011. In addition, the possible presence of the EKC hypothesis is investigated for the analyzed countries. The Zivot–Andrews unit root test with structural break, the bounds testing for cointegration in the presence of structural break and the VECM Granger causality method are employed. The empirical results indicate that (i) the analyzed variables are co-integrated for Thailand, Turkey, India, Brazil, China, Indonesia and Korea, (ii) real income, energy consumption and trade openness are the main determinants of carbon emissions in the long run, (iii) there exists a number of causal relations between the analyzed variables, (iv) the EKC hypothesis is validated for Turkey, India, China and Korea. Robust policy implications can be derived from this study since the estimated models pass several diagnostic and stability tests.     

Relationships among carbon emissions,economic growth,energy consumption and population growth: Testing Environmental Kuznets Curve hypothesis for Brazil,China, India and Indonesia

This study examines the impacts of income, energy consumption and population growth on CO₂ emissions by employing an annual time series data for the period 1970–2012 for India, Indonesia, China, and Brazil. The study used the Autoregressive Distributed Lag (ARDL) bounds test approach considering both the linear and non-linear assumptions for related time series data for the top CO₂ emitter emerging countries in both the short run and long run. The results show that CO₂ emissions have increased statistically significantly with increases in income and energy consumption in all four countries. While the relationship between CO₂ emissions and population growth was found to be statistically significant for India and Brazil, it has been statistically insignificant for China and Indonesia in both the short run and long run. Also, empirical observations from the testing of environmental Kuznets curve (EKC) hypothesis imply that in the cases of Brazil, China and Indonesia, CO₂ emissions will decrease over the time when income increases. So based on the EKC findings, it can be argued that these three countries should not take any actions or policies, which might have conservative impacts on income, in order to reduce their CO₂ emissions. But in the case of India, where CO₂ emissions and income were found to have a positive relationship, an increase in income over the time will not reduce CO₂ emissions in the country.     

Economic growth,electricity consumption,urbanization and environmental degradation relationship in United Arab Emirates

The present study explores the relationship between economic growth, electricity consumption, urbanization and environmental degradation in case of United Arab Emirates (UAE). The study covers the quarter frequency data over the period of 1975–2011. We have applied the ARDL bounds testing approach to examine the long run relationship between the variables in the presence of structural breaks. The VECM Granger causality is applied to investigate the direction of causal relationship between the variables. Our empirical exercise reported the existence of cointegration among the series. Further, we found an inverted U-shaped relationship between economic growth and CO₂ emissions i.e. economic growth raises energy emissions initially and declines it after a threshold point of income per capita (EKC exists). Electricity consumption declines CO₂ emissions. The relationship between urbanization and CO₂ emissions is positive. Exports seem to improve the environmental quality by lowering CO₂ emissions. The causality analysis validates the feedback effect between CO₂ emissions and electricity consumption. Economic growth and urbanization Granger cause CO₂ emissions.     

Does energy intensity contribute to CO2 emissions? A trivariate analysis in selected African countries

The present study investigates the dynamic relationship between energy intensity and CO₂ emissions by incorporating economic growth in environment CO₂ emissions function using data of Sub Saharan African countries. For this purpose, we applied panel cointegration to examine the long run relationship between the series. We employed the VECM Granger causality to test the direction of causality amid the variables.At panel level, our results validate the existence of cointegration among the series. The long run panel results show that energy intensity has positive and statistically significant impact on CO₂ emissions. There is also positive and negative link of non-linear and linear terms of real GDP per capita with CO₂ emissions supporting the presence of environmental Kuznets curve (EKC). The causality analysis reveals the bidirectional causality between economic growth and CO₂ emissions while energy intensity Granger causes economic growth and hence CO₂ emissions, while across the individual countries, the results differ. This paper opens up new insights for policy makers to design comprehensive economic, energy and environmental policy for sustainable long run economic growth.     

Investigating the validity of the environmental Kuznets curve hypothesis in Cambodia

This study investigates whether better governess and corruption control help to form the inverted U-shaped relationship between income and pollution in Cambodia for the period of 1996–2012. The outcome from the Generalized Method of Moments and the Two-stage Least Squares revealed that GDP, urbanization, energy consumption, and trade openness increase CO₂ emission while the control of corruption and governess can reduce CO₂ emission. It is fundamental to note that the environmental Kuznets curve hypothesis was not confirmed in Cambodia. Based on the retrieved results, we recommend for urban planners to utilize policies that will allow them to improve urban planning by controlling sewage, industrial waste, and solid waste which are some of the major causes for the environmental deterioration in Cambodia's major cities. It is also crucial to implement pollution and trade-related actions and strategies to increase the environmental protection from trade. Additionally, it is important for Cambodia to increase the corruption control as this step will strengthen the environmental regulations which will reduce pollution. Finally, a better governess is also important to improve the quality of the environment.     

Investigating the environmental Kuznets curve (EKC) hypothesis by utilizing the ecological footprint as an indicator of environmental degradation

This study investigates the environmental Kuznets curve (EKC) hypothesis using a country’s ecological footprint as an indicator of environmental degradation. Ninety-three countries were examined, categorized by income. The fixed effects and the generalized method of moments results clearly showed an inverted U-shaped relationship between the ecological footprint and GDP growth, which represents the EKC hypothesis in upper middle- and high-income countries but not in low- and lower middle-income countries. This relationship only occurs in a stage of economic development in which technologies are available that improve energy efficiency, energy saving and renewable energy, which are not accessible for countries with low income due to their high cost. Moreover, energy consumption, urbanization, and trade openness increase environmental damage through their positive effect on the ecological footprint of most countries across all income groups. However, financial development reduces environmental degradation in lower middle-, upper middle- and high-income countries. This relationship confirms that loans from banks are primarily given to firms that establish investments in projects that are mostly environmentally friendly. From the results of this study, a number of recommendations can be provided for the investigated countries.     

Does globalization impede environmental quality in India?

Using annual data for the period 1970–2012, the study explores the relationship between globalization and CO₂ emissions by incorporating energy consumption, financial development and economic growth in CO₂ emission function for India. It applies Lee and Strazicich (2013) unit root test for examining the stationary properties of variables in presence of structural breaks and employs the cointegration method proposed by Bayer and Hanck (2013) to test the long-run relationships in the model. The robustness s of cointegration result from the latter model was further verified with the application of the ARDL bounds testing approach to cointegration proposed by Pesaran et al. (2001). After confirming the existence of conitegration, the overall long run estimates of the estimation of carbon emission model points out that acceleration in the process of globalization (measured in its three dimensions – economic, social and political globalizations) and energy consumption result in increasing CO₂ emissions, along with the contribution of economic development and financial development toward the deterioration of the environmental quality by raising CO₂ emissions over the long-run. This finding validates the holding of environmental Kuznets curve (EKC) hypothesis for the Indian context.     

How do transportation-based environmental taxation and globalization contribute to ecological sustainability?

Environmental taxation strategies are recognized as powerful instruments for enhancing environmental quality through emissions reduction globally; however, the ecological effects of green taxes in the transportation sector (ETT) have been largely overlooked. To fill this literature void, we undertake a novel attempt to evaluate the effectiveness of ETT and globalization in attaining ecological sustainability in the presence of energy intensity and real GDP per capita. We employ second-generation Westerlund cointegration, pooled mean group autoregressive distributed lag and fully modified ordinary least squares econometric strategies on data from the Group of Seven (G7) countries from 1994 through 2016. We found long-term stability among the under-analysis variables. Notably, we revealed that while ETT shows a neutral effect in the short run, it promotes ecological sustainability in the long run. Likewise, increased globalization is also uncovered to foster ecological sustainability from the long-term perspective, though its neutral impact existed in the short term. In addition, energy intensity is found to increase ecological footprint consumption (EFCO); nevertheless, the phenomenon of the Environmental Kuznets Curve is valid for the G7 countries, suggesting a long-term ecological recovery in response to higher economic growth. Concerning causality directions, all variables established a bidirectional relationship with EFCO except for globalization, displaying a unidirectional link stemming from globalization to EFCO. From the normative policy perspective, ETT fiscal policy toolbox can prove a breakthrough instrument in mitigating environmental emissions, contributing to ecological quality. Also, in the face of enhanced globalization, exchanging green investment endeavors and trade in green and environmentally friendly products can achieve the ecological sustainability agenda of sustainable development.     

煤矿固废资源化利用的生态效率与碳减排——以淮北市为例

工业固废的大量堆积产生多种环境危害,工业固废的资源化利用能够节约资源和缓解环境压力。建筑行业是能源消耗和碳排放的主要部门之一,其中建筑材料生产阶段的能耗和碳排放占有重要的地位。粉煤灰、煤矸石是常见的工业固体废物,尤其是在以煤炭为主要能源的地区。粉煤灰、煤矸石资源化利用的途径之一是用于制造新型墙体砖。本文以煤炭资源型城市淮北市的新型墙体砖(粉煤灰砌块、煤矸石砖)和传统墙体砖(粘土砖、粘土多孔砖)为案例,对墙体砖生产过程的生态效率和碳排放进行分析和比较。在淮北市墙体材料行业碳排放不增加的前提下,以最优生态效率为目标,建立线性规划模型,对淮北市4种主要墙体材料的产量进行规划。分析结果表明:新型墙体材料的生态效率高于传统墙体材料;煤矸石砖生产过程的碳排放系数高于传统墙体砖;粉煤灰砌块生产过程的碳排放系数介于粘土砖和粘土多孔砖之间。在淮北市墙体材料行业碳排放不增加的前提下,与现有的产量相比,淮北市应禁止粘土砖的生产,适当减少粘土多孔砖的产量,适当增加粉煤灰砌块和煤矸石砖的产量,以达到最优生态效率。在最优生态效率的情况下,淮北市新型墙体材料煤矸石砖对煤矸石工业固废的利用率将由目前的15.8%增加到25.2%。     

Ecological footprint and real income: Panel data evidence from the 27 highest emitting countries

This study examines the effects of real income, financial development and trade openness on the ecological footprint (EF) of consumption using a panel data of leading world EF contributors during the period 1991–2012. A number of panel unit root tests confirm that the data are first-difference stationary. Results from Pedroni co-integration tests show that the variables are co-integrated. The panel dynamic ordinary least squares (DOLS) method is then employed to estimate the long run association between the variables. The results indicate a positive and significant association between ecological footprint (EF) and real income, and a negative and insignificant impact of trade openness on EF. Financial development is also observed to reduce EF. Afterwards, the group-mean fully modified ordinary least squares method is applied to check the robustness of the DOLS estimates. The findings are partially robust as only real income confirms the positive significant impact on EF. In addition, the vector error correction model supports a unidirectional causal impact running from real income to EF. Finally, findings from variance decomposition analysis and impulse response functions reveal that real income will have an increasing effect on EF for the selected countries into the future.     

典型社区家庭消费碳排放特征与影响因素——以北京市为例

家庭消费碳排放是中国碳排放总量的重要组成部分,已成为碳排放增长的主要驱动力,从消费角度研究家庭碳排量特征及影响因素对家庭碳减排和低碳社区建设有重要意义。使用碳排放系数法和消费者生活方式法计算北京市5种典型社区家庭消费月均碳排量,通过最优尺度回归和多重比较分析对不同社区家庭碳排放影响因素进行探究。研究发现：北京市5种社区户均碳排放总量及构成差异显著,影响因素不一致。其中：（1）平房类社区家庭直接碳排量732.26 kgCO₂/月高于其他社区,燃煤取暖是平房社区家庭直接碳排放高的主要因素,单位社区、政策性住房社区和商品房社区家庭直接碳排量较低,约50.00 kgCO₂/月。家庭类型显著影响每个社区家庭直接碳排量,家庭积极参与节能环保活动有利于减少家庭直接碳排放;（2）商品房社区家庭间接碳排量最高,达3879.06 kgCO₂/月,平房类社区家庭最低,间接碳排量仅为商品房社区的1/3,间接碳排放是家庭生活消费碳排放的主体。食品和居住消费产生的间接碳排量较高,老龄化社区家庭医疗保健消费碳排量更高;（3）家庭类型和月总收入对所有社区家庭间接碳排量影响显著,但社区环保工作满意度、社区环境满意度、家庭节能环保活动参与度、耐用品使用年限等因素影响程度存在差异,胡同社区和平房类社区中受教育水平高的家庭产生的间接碳排量更高,需积极灌输环保理念。进一步分析了主要影响因素在不同水平下对应的家庭碳排量差异程度与变化规律,有助于社区管理者识别高碳排家庭,为社区低碳管理提供新思路。     

The linkages between deforestation,energy and growth for environmental degradation in Pakistan

This study explores the validation of the Environmental Kuznets Curve (EKC) hypothesis for Pakistan using time series data from 1980–2013 with deforestation as an indicator (dependent variable) for environmental degradation, and four independent variables (economic growth, energy consumption, trade openness, and population) were also examined. The Autoregressive Distributed Lag (ARDL) bounds testing approach to cointegration and the VECM–Granger causality test were applied. The results confirmed the existence of cointegration among the variables both in long- and short-run paths. However, the diminishing negative impact of economic growth on deforestation in the long-run confirms the EKC hypothesis for deforestation in Pakistan. Moreover, economic growth and energy consumption Granger cause deforestation. A bidirectional causal effect is detected between economic growth and energy consumption, however, in the long-run, economic growth and trade openness Granger cause energy consumption. This study was designed with several significant tests to ensure the reliability of results for policy use and to contribute to future studies on the environment-growth-energy nexus.     

丽江市家庭能耗碳排放特征及影响因素

现代社会中人类活动对碳排放的影响日益显著.家庭作为人类社会的基本单元,其消费活动产生的碳排放是全社会碳排放的重要组成部分.通过对丽江市农村和市区家庭生活用能的调查数据进行分析,发现农村家庭生活用能以木柴为主,沼气和电为辅;市区家庭的生活用能以电为主,其次是液化气和蜂窝煤.从碳排放构成来看,农村地区木柴消费为家庭能源碳排放的主要来源,占总碳排的83.6％;市区电力消费为家庭能源碳排放的主要来源,占总碳排的88.4％.农村地区家庭的碳排放远高于市区家庭,主要原因是木柴的碳排放因子(1.87 kg CO2/kg)远高于电能的边际排放因子(0.7134 kg CO2·kW-1·h-1).从各影响因素与家庭主要能源消费碳排放的回归结果来看,在农村地区,家庭规模、家庭收入、教育水平均对家庭木柴消费碳排放有显著的影响,但影响方向和程度有一定的差别;在市区,年龄结构、教育水平、家庭规模、住房面积均会不同程度增加家庭电能消费碳排放.建议政府在完善“家电下乡”政策、增加农村家庭收入、加强农村居民教育等方面加大投入力度,以减少丽江市整体的家庭能耗碳排放.     

Will income inequality affect environmental quality? Analysis based on China's provincial panel data

During the last two decades of China's rapid economic growth, the gap in citizens’ income has widened and environmental quality has deteriorated. Using Gini coefficients as the measure of income inequality, this study investigated the impacts of income inequality on carbon emissions per capita in China. To control for potential endogeneity and allow for dynamics, the Generalized Method of Moments (GMM) technique is utilized. Moreover, the influential factors that can affect carbon emissions per capita in China have been examined. The empirical results indicate that carbon emissions per capita increase as the income gap expands for nationwide and in the eastern and non-eastern regions of China. Among all factors that may affect carbon emissions per capita, a “U” shaped relationship exists between per capita income and per capita carbon emissions, and increasing the value-added share of secondary industry in the GDP would significantly increase carbon emissions per capita.     

Does income growth relocate ecological footprint?

The aim of this paper is to investigate whether countries tend to relocate their ecological footprint as they grow richer. The analysis is carried out for a panel of 116 countries by employing the production and import components of the ecological footprint data of the Global Footprint Network for the period 2004–2008. With few exceptions, the existing Environmental Kuznets Curve (EKC) literature concentrates only on the income-environmental degradation nexus in the home country and neglects the negative consequences of home consumption spilled out. Controlling for the effects of openness to trade, biological capacity, population density, industry share and energy per capita as well as stringency of environmental regulation and environmental regulation enforcement, we detect an EKC-type relationship only between per capita income and footprint of domestic production. Within the income range, import footprint is found to be monotonically increasing with income. Moreover, we find that domestic environmental regulations do not influence country decisions to import environmentally harmful products from abroad; but they do affect domestic production characteristics. Hence, our findings indicate the importance of environmental regulations and provide support for the “Pollution Haven” and “Race-to-the-Bottom” hypotheses.     

Environmental Kuznets Curve hypothesis and the role of globalization in selected African countries

The present study incorporates globalization and energy intensity into the CO₂ emissions function and investigates the presence of Environmental Kuznets Curve (EKC) in 19 African countries for the time period of 1971–2012. We have applied the ARDL bounds testing approach for cointegration to examine the long run relationship in the variables. Our results confirmed the presence of cointegration between the series in Africa, Algeria, Angola, Cameroon, Congo Republic, Ghana, Kenya, Libya, Morocco, Nigeria, South Africa, Sudan, Tanzania, Togo, Tunisia, Zambia and Zimbabwe. The results indicated the positive effect of energy intensity on CO₂ emissions in Africa, Algeria, Angola, Cameroon, Congo Republic, Ghana, Kenya, Libya, Morocco, Nigeria, South Africa, Sudan, Togo, and Tunisia while energy intensity declines CO₂ emissions in the case of Zambia and Zimbabwe. Globalization decreases CO₂ emissions in Africa, Angola, Cameroon, Congo Republic, Egypt, Kenya, Libya, Tunisia and Zambia but increases CO₂ emissions in Ghana, Morocco, South Africa, Sudan and Tanzania. The EKC exists in Africa, Algeria, Cameroon, Congo Republic, Morocco, Tunisia and Zambia but U-shaped relationship is found between economic growth and CO₂ emissions in Sudan and Tanzania.     

Economic Development,Energy Consumption,and Air Pollution: A Critical Assessment in China

Low energy efficiency, energy shortage, and energy-related environmental issues are becoming critical constraints for the sustainable development of China. This research aims for investigating the impacts of economic development on energy consumption and emissions of air pollutants in China with a comparison between China's developed regions and underdeveloped regions. The Resource and Environmental Performance Index (REPI) model is employed to analyze the performance of energy consumption, industrial waste gas, sulphur dioxide, soot, and industrial dust of selected provinces over the past 13 years. As a ratio of energy consumption or emissions of pollutants of a province and the whole country, the REPI value presents the cost of energy and environment and is not consistent with the change of absolute quantities of energy consumption or emissions of pollutants in a province. The REPI value calculated from 2000 through 2012 indicates that economic development has a certain level of impact on energy consumption and air environment but not necessarily to be negative. Economic development can improve the performance on energy consumption and air pollutants reduction as long as reasonable energy and industrial structure, improved energy efficiency, and strict environmental policies are put in place.     

CO2, economic growth,and energy consumption in China's provinces: Investigating the spatiotemporal and econometric characteristics of China's CO2 emissions

This study addresses the spatiotemporal variations at play in China's CO₂ emissions, based on an estimation of emission levels in the period 1995–2012 and an provincial analysis of the relationship of CO₂ emissions to economic growth and energy consumption. Using a series of econometric models and data on the combustion of fossil fuels and cement manufacturing, the study first estimated CO₂ emission levels during the study period, exploring their spatiotemporal pattern. The results indicate that both China's total and its per capita CO₂ emissions have increased significantly over the study period, with both measures evidencing a similar evolution (albeit one that is characterized by noticeable regional discrepancies at the provincial level and which displays properties of convergence). From a geographical perspective, we found both total and per capita CO₂ emissionsto be higher in China's eastern region than in the country's central and western regions. Panel data analysis was subsequently undertaken in order to quantify the dynamic casual relationship between economic growth, energy consumption, and CO₂ emissions. The empirical results indicated that the variables were in fact cointegrated and exhibited a long-run positive relationship. The results of further Granger causality tests indicated the existence of a bidirectional positive causality between economic growth and energy consumption, as well as between energy consumption and CO₂ emissions, and a unidirectional positive causality running from economic growth to CO₂ emissions. The findings of this study suggest that China is, in the long run, dependent on carbon energy consumption for its rapid economic growth, a dependency which is the cause of considerable increases in CO₂ emissions. China should therefore make greater efforts to develop low-carbon technologies and renewable energy, and improve energy efficiency in order to reduce emissions and achieve green economic growth.     

庐山风景区碳源、碳汇的测度及均衡

旅游目的地系统碳源、碳汇的计算与分析,不仅是旅游业节能减排政策制定的重要依据,也是旅游与环境相互关系研究的一个新的科学命题.以庐山风景区为例,计算并分析了2010年的碳源及碳汇.结果表明:(1)2010年庐山风景区包括本地居民和旅游者的总碳排放为108 697 t.其中,本地居民占碳排放总量的19.52％,旅游者占碳排放总量的80.48％.在旅游者碳排放中,旅游交通碳排放占50.24％,旅游住宿碳排放占38.04％,旅游食物消费碳排放占10.65％,旅游活动碳排放仅占1.07％;(2)2010年庐山风景区内陆地生态系统碳吸收为9447 t;(3)从碳源、碳汇均衡角度看,庐山陆地生态系统的固碳量吸收了区内碳排放的23.47％.但由于旅游者的区际流动和旅游业的产业关联性强,陆地生态系统的碳吸收仅占区内和区外碳排放总量的8.69％,旅游业使庐山成为一个显著的碳源.     

东北三省“水-能源-碳”系统仿真模拟——基于系统动力学模型

水资源和能源消费量及碳排放制约区域发展水平,也影响区域生态环境质量,区域多要素资源耦合作用与协同管理成为近年来的研究热点。水资源、能源和碳排放三个系统通过不同的流程相互连接,探究"水-能源-碳"系统耦合关系,是区域探索绿色协调发展的重要基础。以东北三省为研究对象,采用系统动力学研究方法,从自然、社会、经济三个维度来探索水-能源-碳三者的关联模式。以2001-2019年东北三省的水资源、能源、碳排放现状为基础数据,梳理三个子系统的耦合关系,并对未来二十年其发展变化仿真模拟。结果表明：（1）水资源、能源、碳排放在未来二十年均呈现增长的趋势,水资源增长趋势最快,在仿真情景5下,与2020年相比2040年水资源、能源消费量和碳排放量分别增长230.4%、210.7%和36.9%;（2）决策变量对"水-能源-碳"系统的影响程度依次是清洁节能>产业调控>国内生产总值（GDP）增长率,随着GDP增长率升高,水资源和能源消耗量、碳排放量升增加,随着产业转型升级,居民意识提高及清洁能源增加,水资源和能源消耗量、碳排放量减少。在综合调控情景下,未来水资源消耗量高于基础情景,能源消耗量和碳排放量则得到了良好的控制;（3）2020-2040年,水资源、能源消费量和碳排放量呈现强相关性,纽带关系呈协同优化方向改善,供需缺口减小,有效的缓解了环境压力;（4）情景3的能源结构调整和居民意识的提高可有效降低碳排放量,情景4产业结构的调整对水资源和能源的影响较为明显。情景5权衡经济发展与节能节水以减少碳排放,严格按照"双碳"目标,将水资源、能源向较高质量发展的可持续发展方向推进,更具参考性。研究结果有利于东北三省"水-能源-碳"系统可持续发展,促进经济发展水平。