Identification of marine and coastal biodiversity conservation priorities in Costa Rica

Costa Rica is recognized as one of the most diverse countries in species and ecosystems, in their terrestrial realm as well as in the marine. Besides this relevance, the country presents a delay on conservation and management of marine and coastal biodiversity, with respect to terrestrial. For 2006, the marine protected surface was 5,208.8 km2, with 331.5 km of coastline, in 20 protected areas. The country has made progress on the conservation priority sites identification for terrestrial and freshwater biodiversity, with few efforts on marine planning. This research presents the analysis and results of the gap identification process, for marine and coastal biodiversity conservation in the protected areas system of Costa Rica. The analysis was built with the spatial information available on the presence and distribution of coastal and marine biodiversity, the establishment of the conservation goals and a threat analysis over the ecological integrity of this biodiversity. The selection of high-priority sites was carried out using spatial optimization techniques and the superposition over the current shape of marine protected areas, in order to identify representation gaps. A total of 19,076 km2 of conservation gaps were indentified, with 1,323 km2 in the Caribbean and 17,753 km2 in the Pacific. Recommendations are aimed at planning and strengthening the marine protected areas system, using the gaps identified as a framework. It is expected that the results of this study would be the scientific base needed for planning and sustainable use of marine biodiversity in the country.     

Making the Case for Marine Spatial Planning in the Maltese Islands

Marine spatial planning (MSP) has been gaining in stature recently as an ecosystem-based tool for the management of marine space that promotes the sustainable and optimal use of resources with minimal stakeholder conflicts. Malta is the quintessential maritime nation, with a disproportionately large marine area compared to its terrestrial area. Nonetheless, its limited coastline, a considerable portion of which is inaccessible, poses inevitable conflicts between multiple marine activities and designations, including aquaculture, fishing, bunkering, coastal tourism, navigation, renewable energy installations, conservation of biological diversity and protected areas (on ecological criteria). This article makes the case to implement MSP-based policies and an applicable legal framework in the Maltese Islands.     

A framework to assess adaptive capacity of the water resources system in Nepalese river basins

This paper discusses an indicator-based framework – consisting of seven indicators, four parameters, and an index – to assess adaptive capacity of the water resources system in the Nepalese context and applies this framework to the Bagmati River Basin (BRB) in Nepal. With respect to the BRB, and Nepal in general, the study results show variations in adaptive capacity of the water resources system across the river basin (eight districts within the BRB), at different geographical (district, river basin and national level) as well as temporal (over decades) scale. Such variations suggest a need of differential policy interventions at different spatial scale to achieve adaptive management of the water resources. The adaptive capacity index can be used to prioritize basins, the adaptive capacity parameters can be used to identify the broader areas of intervention in the selected basin, and adaptive capacity indicators reveal the degree of attention required to strengthen adaptive capacity of the water resources system.     

景观生态学在海岸带地区的研究进展

海岸带是景观生态学研究的重要领域,并且取得了长足的发展。系统剖析景观生态学在海岸带陆地土地利用变化的景观格局分析与优化、滨海湿地景观格局破碎化及其生态效应、海岛开发和保护的景观规划与设计、近岸海域空间开发的景观格局分析与评价、海洋环境过程与空间格局的相互作用关系等领域研究取得的成绩及其存在的主要问题。在此基础上,结合我国生态文明建设要求,探讨了景观生态学在海洋生态文明建设中的研究尺度匹配、格局-过程耦合理论引导、景观格局指数量化考核方面的学科优势。景观生态学可以在围填海平面设计与规划研究、海岸带生态修复与景观建设、海洋保护区选划与管理、海岛开发与保护、海陆统筹下的海岸带综合管理等方面开拓应用发展领域,助力海洋生态文明建设,承担建设海洋强国、美丽海洋的新使命。同时也为景观生态学在近岸海洋资源环境中的应用、近岸海洋景观生态学的发展梳理框架与思路。     

小尺度海域空间评价单元划分技术研究——以福建省东山湾为例

科学合理的海域空间评价单元划分是各类海洋空间监测、评价、规划和管理的基础工作,对于保护海洋生态环境,实现海洋资源的可持续开发利用具有重大现实意义。然而,海洋的流动性、开放性、边界模糊性等特征,导致海洋空间评价单元划分较陆地而言更为复杂、困难。以福建省东山湾为例,提出一种适用于小尺度海域的空间评价单元划分技术方案,通过从化学属性、物理属性、生物学属性三个方面构建海域空间生态属性划分指标体系,进行空间分类评价,运用插值、叠加分析等GIS技术将东山湾划分为67个基本空间评价单元。研究结果不仅能为进一步划定东山湾海洋空间规划提供技术支持,同时为其他小尺度海域生态监测、评价、规划和管理提供科学参考。     

Social and economic policy issues relevant to marine aquaculture

This paper presents a critical review of current social, economic and policy issues relevant to marine aquaculture (mariculture) in Europe. Tools for identifying the full range of social, economic and environmental issues that influence the sustainable development of mariculture are examined. Under present sectoral approaches to policy, investment, development planning and natural resources management, these issues continue to be treated in isolation. The four main challenges presented in this paper are: (i) how to create a more objective information base with which to assess the social, economic and environmental factors that condition the sustainability of mariculture; (ii) how to provide information from different disciplines in an easy to obtain and compatible format; (iii) how to better integrate knowledge and skills from different disciplines to create a holistic and robust framework for assessing options for mariculture development that integrates social, economic and environmental parameters; and (iv) the effective integration of these assessments into the formulation of policy, investment strategies, spatial plans and natural resources management for coastal areas. Specific issues that need to be addressed within the framework for the integrated evaluation of the economic, social and environmental parameters governing the sustainable development of mariculture include: ? development of more accurate information on the economic, social and environmental benefits and costs of well‐planned and managed mariculture; ? clearer definition of gaps in existing knowledge on factors critical to the sustainable and equitable development of mariculture; ? development of pro‐active consideration of the coastal land and water resource requirements of mariculture as part of strategic economic planning, spatial planning and natural resources management; ? the need for more equitable treatment of mariculture regarding rights of access to sites for development and use of resources; ? development of awareness among decision‐makers, planners, and managers from different sectoral agencies of the contribution that mariculture may make in promoting the sustainable use of coastal ecosystems; ? promotion of a shift in emphasis away from controlling the end use of resources and toward a more balanced approach to coastal development where emphasis is also given to maintaining the health and productivity of coastal ecosystems and the resources they generate that sustain different forms of activity, including mariculture.     

Aichi Biodiversity Target 11 in the like-minded megadiverse countries

The group of like-minded megadiverse countries (LMMCs), which harbours a wealth of biological and cultural diversity, adopted a Carta in 2016 to accelerate progress towards achieving Aichi Biodiversity Target 11. This paper presents the progress made over the last two years and an analysis of the LMMCs’ national priority actions; approved Global Environment Facility, GEF-5 and GEF-6 protected area-related biodiversity projects; and relevant targets, goals, and actions from National Biodiversity Strategies and Action Plans (NBSAPs). Through their recent actions, these countries have contributed to progress in Target 11, especially with respect to marine protected area expansion, where they contributed one-sixth of the area added in national waters over the past two years. Results indicate that if implemented as planned, actions proposed by the LMMCs will increase terrestrial and marine protected area coverage by 1,106,148 km² and 192,214 km² respectively. Of these commitments, 227,230 km² in terrestrial and 144,475 km² in marine protected areas have the highest chance of being implemented. In total, 741 commitments were identified from the above sources, with implications on the qualitative elements of Target 11 (coverage of areas important for biodiversity, areas important for ecosystem services, ecological representation, connectivity, effective management, equitable management, and integration into the wider landscapes and seascapes). Of these 741 commitments, 25% showed a strong likelihood of being implemented. The country-level analysis of all commitments indicates that equitable management and integration will show the most progress, measured against identified gaps, if commitments are implemented as proposed. This progress on the qualitative elements of Target 11 in the LMMCs will also provide benefits and co-benefits for other Aichi Targets and for the requirements of other multi-lateral environmental agreements, as well as at the global level.     

A river-based approach in reconstructing connectivity among protected areas: Insights and challenges from the Balkan region

Global efforts to halt biodiversity loss mandate the establishment of protected areas. In the face of habitat loss and climate uncertainty, large-scale networks of protected areas connected by corridors are needed to increase the dispersal and persistence potential of biota. For example, the recent European Biodiversity Strategy for 2030 defines clear targets for identifying, establishing and integrating ecological corridors, as part of a Trans-European Nature Network. Here, we examined whether rivers could serve as such corridors, facilitating landscape connectivity (i.e. extent to which landscape facilitates or impedes species movement, exchange of genes, natal dispersal and metapopulation dynamics) among protected areas hosted within different countries in the Balkan Peninsula, southeastern Europe. To quantitatively address this question, we calculated the proportion of the river network enclosed within a protected area per country to detect patterns of protection coverage and explored the degree to which spatial connections between 1878 protected areas are supported by the river network. Acknowledging that dams hinder instream continuity, we further quantified potential loss of connections between protected areas caused by the existence of already implemented or planned dam projects upon critical river habitats of endangered fish species. Our results highlight that Balkan rivers have great potential in providing the spatial connections needed to establish landscape connectivity between most of protected areas in the region. Still, heedless hydropower growth and dissimilarities in river protection between neighboring countries remain key challenges for the evolution of a relative framework. Transnational cooperation and systematic planning of infrastructure development could be the only efficient steps towards supporting the establishment of a river-based network to reconstruct connectivity between protected areas and meet biodiversity goals.     

How does the cumulative impacts approach support Maritime Spatial Planning?

Maritime Spatial Planning (MSP) needs to incorporate spatial information on human impacts. As human activities and uses increase in marine and coastal waters around the world, pressures in ecosystems are also increasing, leading to multiple adverse effects on different species and habitats. The European Directive on MSP aims to achieve an integrated approach to marine governance, whilst securing and maintaining the healthy status of marine and coastal waters, in accordance with the Marine Strategy Framework Directive. The latter requires Member States to develop assessments not only on pressures and impacts, but also on the state of the marine environment and then take measures towards reaching a Good Environmental Status by 2020.The Portuguese Maritime Spatial Plan – Plano de Ordenamento do Espaço Marítimo (POEM) was developed between 2009 and 2012. In 2014 a law establishing the Basis for the Spatial Planning and Management of the National Maritime Space was enacted and in 2015 the framework for the elaboration of a new national Maritime Spatial Plan, named Situation Plan, was established. Portugal will face, in the next five years, the challenge of planning and managing its marine space, whilst promoting its sustainable use and protection.This study adapted a cumulative effects assessment model to understand how the impacts from multiple threats affect the marine and coastal ecosystems and, how this information can be used to improve the management process. Information was gathered on intensity and distribution of activities and uses for the Portuguese continental subdivision marine area, quantified and mapped their cumulative impacts in marine ecosystems, and overlapped with the POEM. Results show that impacts are spreading from the coast up to the Contiguous Zone. Higher scores appear in Transitional and Coastal Waters in the north (Viana do Castelo/Figueira da Foz), centre (Peniche/Setúbal) and south (Lagos/Faro). In some areas with higher ranks, statutes of nature conservation are already in place, but potential activities may still occur on top of existing ones. This study shows that the adapted model is a helpful tool to clarify ocean planning, identify areas of potential conflicts among users and support the decision making process.     

Temporal changes in artificial light exposure of marine turtle nesting areas

Artificial light at night poses a significant threat to multiple taxa across the globe. In coastal regions, artificial lighting close to marine turtle nesting beaches is disruptive to their breeding success. Prioritizing effective management of light pollution requires an understanding of how the light exposure of nesting areas changes over time in response to changing temporal and spatial distributions of coastal development. We analyzed multitemporal, satellite night‐light data, in combination with linear mixed model analysis, to determine broadscale changes in artificial light exposure at Australian marine turtle nesting areas between 1993 and 2010. We found seven marine turtle management units (MU), from five species, have experienced significant increases in light exposure over time, with flatback turtles nesting in east Australia experiencing the fastest increases. The remaining 12 MUs showed no significant change in light exposure. Unchanging MUs included those previously identified as having high exposure to light pollution (located in western Australia and southern Queensland), indicating that turtles in these areas have been potentially exposed to high light levels since at least the early nineties. At a finer geographic scale (within‐MU), nine MUs contained nesting areas with significant increases in light exposure. These nesting areas predominantly occurred close to heavily industrialized coastal areas, thus emphasizing the importance of rigorous light management in industry. Within all MUs, nesting areas existed where light levels were extremely low and/or had not significantly increased since 1993. With continued coastal development, nesting females may shift to these darker/unchanging ‘buffer’ areas in the future. This is valuable information that informs our understanding of the capacity and resilience of marine turtles faced with coastal development: an understanding that is essential for effective marine turtle conservation.     

Incorporating climate change adaptation into marine protected area planning

Climate change is increasingly impacting marine protected areas (MPAs) and MPA networks, yet adaptation strategies are rarely incorporated into MPA design and management plans according to the primary scientific literature. Here we review the state of knowledge for adapting existing and future MPAs to climate change and synthesize case studies (n = 27) of how marine conservation planning can respond to shifting environmental conditions. First, we derive a generalized conservation planning framework based on five published frameworks that incorporate climate change adaptation to inform MPA design. We then summarize examples from the scientific literature to assess how conservation goals were defined, vulnerability assessments performed and adaptation strategies incorporated into the design and management of existing or new MPAs. Our analysis revealed that 82% of real‐world examples of climate change adaptation in MPA planning derive from tropical reefs, highlighting the need for research in other ecosystems and habitat types. We found contrasting recommendations for adaptation strategies at the planning stage, either focusing only on climate refugia, or aiming for representative protection of areas encompassing the full range of expected climate change impacts. Recommendations for MPA management were more unified and focused on adaptative management approaches. Lastly, we evaluate common barriers to adopting climate change adaptation strategies based on reviewing studies which conducted interviews with MPA managers and other conservation practitioners. This highlights a lack of scientific studies evaluating different adaptation strategies and shortcomings in current governance structures as two major barriers, and we discuss how these could be overcome. Our review provides a comprehensive synthesis of planning frameworks, case studies, adaptation strategies and management actions which can inform a more coordinated global effort to adapt existing and future MPA networks to continued climate change.     

近海海洋生态连通性研究进展

生态连通性是空间生态学和保护生物学的重要概念和研究手段。国外越来越多的研究表明,开展近海海洋生态连通性研究对促进海洋生态系统保护和修复具有十分重要的现实意义。阐述了近海海洋生态连通性的概念与机制,回顾了目前近海海洋连通性的研究进展并分析了存在的问题,总结了近海海洋生态连通性研究的框架和具体方法,最后提出我国开展近海海洋生态连通性研究的建议,以期对今后国内开展海洋生态连通性相关研究工作有所启示。     

Multi-attribute ecological river typology for assessing ecological condition and conservation planning

A river classification framework is needed to make good management and planning decisions about river health and biodiversity. We developed a multi-attribute ecological river typology to address this need in the Australian State of New South Wales (801,428 km²). Multivariate patterns in data collected from 322 reference sites were used to define river types for each attribute: abiotic features (10 types), fish assemblages (6 types) and macroinvertebrate assemblages from river edges (8 types) and riffle zones (5 types). We used classification tree analysis to define broad regions for each attribute and then to construct identification keys for river types within each region using slope, elevation, maximum distance from source, latitude and mean annual rainfall. These keys allow the mapping of the likely spatial extent of river types and the assignment of a multi-attribute river-type identity to a river reach anywhere in the State. We used the average dissimilarity distances among the river types and the rates of misclassification of reference sites to assess the reliability of the assignments for different attributes in different regions. This approach to river classification can be applied anywhere in the world, resulting in simple to highly complex typologies depending on data availability. In data-poor areas it may result in a single attribute typology based on remotely derived variables and a coarsely defined reference condition. In data-rich areas the typology may have a large number of attributes using very large datasets with high resolution. Handling editor: D. Dudgeon     

Optimizing coastal and marine spatial planning through the use of high-resolution benthic sensitivity models

Effective management of coastal and marine resources requires knowledge of how community sensitivity varies spatially. With this in mind, we developed a benthic sensitivity index (SI), based on the distribution and abundance of five ecological groups that can be used to assess community tolerance to organic enrichment and other disturbances. The index, projected as a high-resolution map, ranks communities from those dominated by sensitive and ecologically important species (i.e. low SI values) to those composed mainly of tolerant and/or opportunistic species (i.e., high SI values). Applying our model to a multiple-use case study in southeast Brazil, we were able to show considerable variability in the sensitivity of communities across the study area that was relatively stable over time. This allowed us to evaluate the possible direct (i.e., spatially overlapping) and indirect effects (i.e., cumulative changes to the physical environment) of a range of activities on sensitive and ecologically diverse benthic communities. Our approach and the resulting high-resolution maps hold promise for a range of spatial planning applications, including the development of coastal infrastructure, assessments of the representativeness of marine protected areas and other activities such as the selection of appropriate locations for dredge spoil dumping. Overall, we present a novel and transparent way of extrapolating limited survey data to provide spatial and temporal information on the sensitivity of benthic communities in multiple-use coastal and marine areas.     

A Regional-Scale Ocean Health Index for Brazil

Brazil has one of the largest and fastest growing economies and one of the largest coastlines in the world, making human use and enjoyment of coastal and marine resources of fundamental importance to the country. Integrated assessments of ocean health are needed to understand the condition of a range of benefits that humans derive from marine systems and to evaluate where attention should be focused to improve the health of these systems. Here we describe the first such assessment for Brazil at both national and state levels. We applied the Ocean Health Index framework, which evaluates ten public goals for healthy oceans. Despite refinements of input data and model formulations, the national score of 60 (out of 100) was highly congruent with the previous global assessment for Brazil of 62. Variability in scores among coastal states was most striking for goals related to mariculture, protected areas, tourism, and clean waters. Extractive goals, including Food Provision, received low scores relative to habitat-related goals, such as Biodiversity. This study demonstrates the applicability of the Ocean Health Index at a regional scale, and its usefulness in highlighting existing data and knowledge gaps and identifying key policy and management recommendations. To improve Brazil''s ocean health, this study suggests that future actions should focus on: enhancing fisheries management, expanding marine protected areas, and monitoring coastal habitats.     

Marine biodiversity: patterns, threats and conservation needs

Marine biodiversity is higher in benthic rather than pelagic systems, and in coasts rather than the open ocean since there is a greater range of habitats near the coast. The highest species diversity occurs in the Indonesian archipelago and decreases radially from there. The terrestrial pattern of increasing diversity from poles to tropics occurs from the Arctic to the tropics but does not seem to occur in the southern hemisphere where diversity is high at high latitides. Losses of marine diversity are highest in coastal areas largely as a result of conflicting uses of coastal habitats. The best way to conserve marine diversity is to conserve habitat and landscape diversity in the coastal area. Marine protected areas are only a part of the conservation strategy needed. It is suggested that a framework for coastal conservation is integrated coastal area management where one of the primary goals is sustainable use of coastal biodiversity.     

Cumulative Human Impacts on Mediterranean and Black Sea Marine Ecosystems: Assessing Current Pressures and Opportunities

Management of marine ecosystems requires spatial information on current impacts. In several marine regions, including the Mediterranean and Black Sea, legal mandates and agreements to implement ecosystem-based management and spatial plans provide new opportunities to balance uses and protection of marine ecosystems. Analyses of the intensity and distribution of cumulative impacts of human activities directly connected to the ecological goals of these policy efforts are critically needed. Quantification and mapping of the cumulative impact of 22 drivers to 17 marine ecosystems reveals that 20% of the entire basin and 60–99% of the territorial waters of EU member states are heavily impacted, with high human impact occurring in all ecoregions and territorial waters. Less than 1% of these regions are relatively unaffected. This high impact results from multiple drivers, rather than one individual use or stressor, with climatic drivers (increasing temperature and UV, and acidification), demersal fishing, ship traffic, and, in coastal areas, pollution from land accounting for a majority of cumulative impacts. These results show that coordinated management of key areas and activities could significantly improve the condition of these marine ecosystems.     

基于系统保护规划的海河流域湿地保护优先格局与保护空缺识别

以海河流域为研究对象,依托系统保护规划的理论、方法和技术手段,建立气候-地貌-湿地生态地理综合分类单元,并将此单元作为宏观尺度湿地生物多样性的替代单元,同时以湿地水鸟作为物种尺度的指示物种,综合考虑道路、居民点等社会因素,确定了海河流域湿地保护优先格局及保护空缺。研究结果表明：湿地结构上,现有保护体系中仅滨海湿地受保护比例较高,经系统保护规划优后,湿地保护比例可达28.55%,保护面积达36.55 km²;在空间分布上,仅徒骇马颊河水系目前得到较好的保护,建议对滦河及冀东沿海区域及海河流域南北水系通过设立保护小区和建立湿地公园等方式加强保护。研究结果可为海河流域湿地保护体系调整提供参考,为湿地、非湿地生态系统的整合优化提供有益启示。     

海洋可持续发展目标与海洋和滨海生态系统管理

海洋和海岸带可以为人类提供多种生态系统服务,保护与持续利用海洋资源以促进海洋和海岸带可持续发展已被正式纳入联合国可持续发展目标。实施海洋可持续发展目标面临几大挑战,包括如何减小陆基人类活动的影响、加强海岸带的综合管理、提高海洋资源效率、适应气候变化和提高沿海居民的人类福祉等。为应对这些挑战,需要将海洋和海岸带融合为一个大型生态系统,利用基于生态系统的管理方法,综合考虑各个部门和多种胁迫因素的累积影响,通过建立综合的海洋观测体系,合理划分海洋功能区,按照海洋环境承载力限制陆基人类活动,合理配置并有效利用海洋资源,提升海洋和海岸带生态系统的整体服务功能,从而进一步推进实施海洋可持续发展目标。     

The Crowded Sea: Incorporating Multiple Marine Activities in Conservation Plans Can Significantly Alter Spatial Priorities

Successful implementation of marine conservation plans is largely inhibited by inadequate consideration of the broader social and economic context within which conservation operates. Marine waters and their biodiversity are shared by a host of stakeholders, such as commercial fishers, recreational users and offshore developers. Hence, to improve implementation success of conservation plans, we must incorporate other marine activities while explicitly examining trade-offs that may be required. In this study, we test how the inclusion of multiple marine activities can shape conservation plans. We used the entire Mediterranean territorial waters of Israel as a case study to compare four planning scenarios with increasing levels of complexity, where additional zones, threats and activities were added (e.g., commercial fisheries, hydrocarbon exploration interests, aquaculture, and shipping lanes). We applied the marine zoning decision support tool Marxan to each planning scenario and tested a) the ability of each scenario to reach biodiversity targets, b) the change in opportunity cost and c) the alteration of spatial conservation priorities. We found that by including increasing numbers of marine activities and zones in the planning process, greater compromises are required to reach conservation objectives. Complex plans with more activities incurred greater opportunity cost and did not reach biodiversity targets as easily as simplified plans with less marine activities. We discovered that including hydrocarbon data in the planning process significantly alters spatial priorities. For the territorial waters of Israel we found that in order to protect at least 10% of the range of 166 marine biodiversity features there would be a loss of ∼15% of annual commercial fishery revenue and ∼5% of prospective hydrocarbon revenue. This case study follows an illustrated framework for adopting a transparent systematic process to balance biodiversity goals and economic considerations within a country''s territorial waters.