泛素化在TRAF2介导的NF-κB信号通路中的作用

NF-κB（核因子κ增强子结合蛋白）是核转录因子家族成员,具有调节免疫、炎症和细胞存活的功能.它可被TRAF2（tumor necrosis factor receptor associated factor 2,肿瘤坏死因子受体相关因子2）等相关因子活化.TRAF2包含了N-端的环指结构域和C-端的高度保守结构域.它通过与肿瘤坏死因子受体超家族成员相互作用,介导了下游信号通路.而TRAF2的泛素化在过程中是关键的,鞘磷脂作为TRAF2的泛素化连接酶辅助因子,在TRAF2介导的NF-κB信号通路中发挥重要作用.     

TNF-α信号传导通路的分子机理

肿瘤坏死因子α（tumor necrosis factor-alpha,TNF-α）是一种具有多效生物学效应的细胞因子.TNF的生物学效应都是通过细胞表面的2种TNF受体（TNFR）引发,其信号传导通路主要包括caspase家族介导的细胞凋亡、衔接蛋白TRAF介导的转录因子NF-κB和JNK蛋白激酶的活化.TNFR1和TNFR2的生物学功能不是独立的,许多生物学活性由二者共同完成.3条信号传导通路之间及各通路内部含有各种调节机制,使TNF的各种生物学功能协调发挥出来.本文评述了3条信号传导通路最新进展、关键激酶的研究状况及其在整个信号网络中的作用机理,如IKK的激活以及重要的信号转导分子RIP、TRAF2、TRUSS的结构、相互作用的方式等     

胞内接头蛋白TRAFs家族

肿瘤坏死因子（tumor necrosis factor,TNF）受体相关因子（receptor-associated factor,TRAF）家族是一类胞内接头蛋白,能介导TNF受体和Toll-like／IL-1受体超家族成员与多种下游信号通路包括NF—κB（nuclear factor κB）和JNK（Jun N-terminal kinase）的信号传导。TRAF蛋白家族参与调控细胞增殖、分化乃至凋亡等生理过程。由于其在信号通路中的关键作用,TRAFS蛋白的失调与多种疾病的发生相关。本文结合最新的研究进展对TRAFs蛋白家族在信号传导通路中的地位进行介绍,并探讨了TRAFs及其相关蛋白在临床上可能的应用前景。     

一种新的肿瘤抑制因子Cylindromatosis

肿瘤抑制因子cylindromatosis(CYLD)是新发现的一种细胞因子,具有去泛素化酶活性。肿瘤坏死因子受体相关因子2(TRAF2)是NF-κB信号转导途径中的一员,TRAF2如果发生Lys48相互连接的多聚泛素化,则导致其自身的降解;如果发生Lys63相互连接的多聚泛素化,则能开启NF—κB的下游信号通路。CYLD很可能是通过把TRAF2上Lys63相互连接的多聚泛素链去掉,而在NF—κB信号转导途径中起负调节物的作用,阻止下游信号途径的转导。因此CYLD功能异常会导致NF—κB过度活化,从而引起多种病理生理反应。NF—κB的抑制剂如水杨酸钠、前列腺素A1等简单的药物试剂,有可能减弱由于CYLD缺失所引起的后果,这为头帕肿瘤综合症和其他癌症在临床治疗中所需药物的研究提供了新的策略。     

封面故事

<正>肿瘤坏死因子受体超家族(TNFRSF)的成员是机体非常重要的调节分子,参与细胞的生长、分化、凋亡与存活等过程。已有研究表明,TNFRSF家族成员可以通过在细胞质膜和内吞体上结合不同的接头分子,启动截然不同的下游信号通路。例如,TNF结合细胞膜表面的TNFR1,能够招募TRADD,RIP1和TRAF2组成信号复合物Ⅰ,激活经典的NF-κB通路;而内化的TNF-TNFR1复合物则能够招募TRADD、FADD和Caspase-8组成信号复合物Ⅱ,即招募死亡诱导信号复合物介导细胞凋亡。死亡受体6(DR6)属于肿瘤坏死因子受体超家族的一员,它在免疫系统和神经系统中发挥着重要功     

单纯疱疹病毒US3衣壳蛋白在TRAF6泛素化时或之前抑制Toll样受体2信号通路

单纯疱疹病毒（HSV ）能通过多种策略来调节宿主免疫反应。通过对 HSV开放读码框架的筛选发现, HSV编码的额外蛋白能影响核因子κB（NF-κB）信号通路,确定了病毒US3衣壳蛋白是NF-κB信号通路的抑制剂。该研究发现,在感染早期 US3蛋白能抑制病毒感染引起的Toll样受体2（TLR2）信号通路激活。US3在转染细胞中过表达能抑制酵母多糖引起的 TLR2信号通路激活,且这种抑制作用发生在MyD88的下游和p65的上游。在TLR2信号通路中,TRAF6的泛素化至关重要。使用US3-null和US3激酶突变病毒株,证明HSV US3蛋白能降低TRAF6泛素化,且US3激酶活性是这种作用所必需。结果提示,US3是有效抑制TLR2信号通路所必需且发生在TRAF6泛素化时或之前。     

TRAF6 与NF-κB 在特发性炎症性肌病小鼠肌肉中的表达及意义

目的:研究肿瘤坏死因子受体相关因子6(TRAF6)与核转录因子κB(NF-κB)在特发性炎症性肌病(IIMs)中的表达情况,探讨TRAF6在IIMs发病中的作用及机制。方法:30只雌性BALB/c小鼠随机分为5组(每组6只),A:正常对照组;B~E:IIMs模型自第一次免疫后分别在1周、2周、3周、4周末处理组;采用实时荧光定量PCR方法检测各组小鼠肌肉组织中TRAF6与NF-κB m RNA表达水平。结果:(1)IIMs各组小鼠肌肉中TRAF6与NF-κB m RNA与正常对照组相比表达均有不同程度升高(P0.01),第2周末时升高最为显著(P0.01),第3周、4周呈下降趋势(P0.01);(2)IIMs小鼠各组肌肉组织中TRAF6与NF-κB m RNA表达水平与肌肉炎症程度呈正相关(r=0.940,r=0.908,P0.01),前二者之间也呈显著正相关(r=0.944,P0.01)。结论:TRAF6、NF-κB m RNA表达在IIMs小鼠肌肉中上调,TRAF6可能通过NF-κB的激活在IIMs发生发展过程中发挥重要作用。     

肿瘤坏死因子信号传导的分子机理

肿瘤坏死因子(tumor necrosis factor,TNF)是一种具有多种生物学效应的细胞因子,其生物学效应包括促进细胞生长、分化、凋亡及炎症诱发等.TNF的生物学效应都是通过细胞表面的两种TNF受体引发的.TNF的信号传导通路主要包括细胞凋亡及转录因子NF-kB和JNK蛋白激酶的激活.这3条信号传导通路之间及各通路内部含有各种调节机制,使TNF的各种生物学功能协调发挥出来.从1994年到现在,对肿瘤坏死因子信号传导通路的分子机理研究取得了一系列突破性进展,在细胞信号传导研究领域中树立了成功的典范.     

烫伤对小鼠腹腔巨噬细胞LPS/Toll信号通路的影响—— c-fos基因表达、AP-1和NF-κB的DNA结合活性及IL-12 p40基因表达的抑制

烫伤能够引起机体免疫系统功能的抑制, 其机制目前还不很清楚. 巨噬细胞在机体防御系统的调节中居重要地位, 因此研究烫伤对巨噬细胞的效应就显得非常必要. 转录因子AP-1和NF-κB是Toll样受体介导的信号通路中的重要成员, 对于多种参与免疫反应的基因尤其是细胞因子基因的诱导表达必不可少[1]. 应用小鼠烫伤模型, 研究了烫伤对于上述两个重要转录因子的效应. 发现烫伤后, 小鼠腹腔巨噬细胞中LPS介导的c-fos基因表达, AP-1和NF-κB的DNA结合活性及IL-12 p40基因表达均被显著地抑制. 这一结果提示, 巨噬细胞Toll信号通路的变化与烫伤引起的机体免疫功能紊乱密切相关.     

JNK3通过与RelA/p65相互作用抑制NF-κB信号通路减弱Bel-7402细胞的黏附能力

JNK信号通路在细胞的炎症、增殖与凋亡等生物学过程中发挥了重要的作用．我们采用酵母双杂交技术发现转录因子p65是JNK3的相互作用蛋白质．体内体外实验均证实JNK3与p65存在蛋白质相互作用．报告基因实验结果表明过表达JNK3抑制TNFα诱导NF-κB介导的转录激活．EMSA结果证明JNK3减弱NF-κB的DNA结合能力．实时定量PCR结果表明JNF3减少NF-κB靶基因的表达．综上所述,我们的研究结果表明JNK3做为一个调节分子在体内发挥了抑制p65转录活性的功能．     

The PP4R1 subunit of protein phosphatase PP4 targets TRAF2 and TRAF6 to mediate inhibition of NF-κB activation

TRAFs constitute a family of proteins that have been implicated in signal transduction by immunomodulatory cellular receptors and viral proteins. TRAF2 and TRAF6 have an E3-ubiquitin ligase activity, which is dependent on the integrity of their RING finger domain and it has been associated with their ability to activate the NF-κB and AP1 signaling pathways. A yeast two-hybrid screen with TRAF2 as bait, identified the regulatory subunit PP4R1 of protein phosphatase PP4 as a TRAF2-interacting protein. The interaction of TRAF2 with PP4R1 depended on the integrity of the RING finger domain of TRAF2. PP4R1 could interact also with the TRAF2-related factor TRAF6 in a RING domain-dependent manner. Exogenous expression of PP4R1 inhibited NF-κB activation by TRAF2, TRAF6, TNF and the Epstein–Barr virus oncoprotein LMP1. In addition, expression of PP4R1 downregulated IL8 induction by LMP1, whereas downregulation of PP4R1 by RNA interference enhanced the induction of IL8 by LMP1 and TNF. PP4R1 could mediate the dephosphorylation of TRAF2 Ser11, which has been previously implicated in TRAF2-mediated activation of NF-κB. Finally, PP4R1 could inhibit TRAF6 polyubiquitination, suggesting an interference with the E3 ubiquitin ligase activity of TRAF6. Taken together, our data identify a novel mechanism of NF-κB pathway inhibition which is mediated by PP4R1-dependent targeting of specific TRAF molecules.     

Ubiquitin ligase Smurf1 targets TRAF family proteins for ubiquitination and degradation

The HECT-type E3 Smad ubiquitination regulation factor 1 (Smurf1) functions in regulation of cell polarity and bone homeostasis by targeting Smads, Runx2, RhoA and MEKK2 for ubiquitination and degradation. In a yeast two-hybrid screening, we identified TNF receptor-associated factor 4 (TRAF4) as a candidate substrate and was further validated. The PY motifs of TRAF4 mediated the interaction with the second WW domain of Smurf1. Overexpression of Smurf1 reduced the protein levels of TRAF4 dependent of its E3 activity and the proteasome. Further, we showed that all six members of TRAF family could be ubiquitinated by Smurf1. Consequently, Smurf1 interfered with the functions of TRAFs in NF-κB signaling under stimulation or not. These results suggested a new role of Smurf1 in inflammation and immunity through controlling the degradation of TRAFs.     

EB病毒潜伏膜蛋白1通过结合TRAFs调控NF-κB

为了探讨EB病毒潜伏膜蛋白1(LMP1)的致瘤机制,对鼻咽癌中LMP1激活重要的核转录因子NF-κB机制进行了研究.首先,采用免疫共沉淀-蛋白质印迹在稳定表达LMP1的鼻咽癌细胞系HNE2-LMP1中证实LMP1与TRAF1,2,3结合形成免疫共沉淀复合物,进一步以野生型LMP1及其三种突变体的鼻咽癌细胞系LMP1（野生型,wt）、HNE2-LMP1 del187～351(CTAR1缺失型)、HNE2-LMP1(1～231)(CTAR2缺失型)、HNE2-LMP1(1～187)(羧基端胞浆区缺失型)、HNE2-pSG5(空白载体型)为材料,结合NF-κB报道基因质粒（pGL2-NF-κB-luc）的荧光素酶活性表达分析NF-κB的活性,证实:较之母细胞, 野生型LMP1活化NF-κB达13.8倍, LMP1(1～187)几乎不活化NF-κB,LMP1(1～231)活化NF-κB达4.9倍, LMP1(del187～351)活化NF-κB达9.1倍;TRAF1过表达升高LMP1(wt)及LMP1(1～231)介导的NF-κB活性,而对LMP1(del 187～351)活化NF-κB无影响;TRAF3过表达或TRAF3负显性突变体抑制LMP1(wt)及LMP1(1～231)介导的NF-κB活性,而不影响LMP1(del 187～351)活化NF-κB; TRAF2过表达升高LMP1(wt)、LMP1 (1～231)及LMP1(del 187～351)介导的NF-κB活性.这些结果表明：鼻咽癌中LMP1通过TRAF1、TRAF2或TRAF3调控NF-κB,TRAF1和TRAF3主要通过CTAR1发挥作用,TRAF2的作用主要是通过CTAR1和CTAR2介导的.     

Mutational analysis of TRAF6 reveals a conserved functional role of the RING dimerization interface and a potentially necessary but insufficient role of RING-dependent TRAF6 polyubiquitination towards NF-κB activation

TRAF6 is an E3 ubiquitin ligase that plays a pivotal role in the activation of NF-κB by innate and adaptive immunity stimuli. TRAF6 consists of a highly conserved carboxyl terminal TRAF-C domain which is preceded by a coiled coil domain and an amino terminal region that contains a RING domain and a series of putative zinc-finger motifs. The TRAF-C domain contributes to TRAF6 oligomerization and mediates the interaction of TRAF6 with upstream signaling molecules whereas the RING domain comprises the core of the ubiquitin ligase catalytic domain. In order to identify structural elements that are important for TRAF6-induced NF-κB activation, mutational analysis of the TRAF-C and RING domains was performed. Alterations of highly conserved residues of the TRAF-C domain of TRAF6 did not affect significantly the ability of the protein to activate NF-κB. On the other hand a number of functionally important residues (L77, Q82, R88, F118, N121 and E126) for the activation of NF-κB were identified within the RING domain of TRAF6. Interestingly, several homologues of these residues in TRAF2 were shown to have a conserved functional role in TRAF2-induced NF-κB activation and lie at the dimerization interface of the RING domain. Finally, whereas alteration of Q82, R88 and F118 compromised both the K63-linked polyubiquitination of TRAF6 and its ability to activate NF-κB, alteration of L77, N121 and E126 diminished the NF-κB activating function of TRAF6 without affecting TRAF6 K63-linked polyubiquitination. Our results support a conserved functional role of the TRAF RING domain dimerization interface and a potentially necessary but insufficient role for RING-dependent TRAF6 K63-linked polyubiquitination towards NF-κB activation in cells.     

Structural biology study of human TNF receptor associated factor 4 TRAF domain

TRAF4 is a unique member of TRAF family, which is essential for innate immune response, nervous system and other systems. In addition to being an adaptor protein, TRAF4 was identifi ed as a regulator protein in recent studies. We have determined the crystal structure of TRAF domain of TRAF4 (residues 292-466) at 2.60 ? resolution by X-ray crystallography method. The trimericly assembled TRAF4 resembles a mushroom shape, containing a super helical “stalk” which is made of three right-handed intertwined α helixes and a C-terminal “cap”, which is divided at residue L302 as a boundary. Similar to other TRAFs, both intermolecular hydrophobic interaction in super helical “stalk” and hydrogen bonds in “cap” regions contribute directly to the formation of TRAF4 trimer. However, differing from other TRAFs, there is an additional flexible loop (residues 421-426), which contains a previously identified phosphorylated site S426 exposing on the surface. This S426 was reported to be phosphorylated by IKKα which is the pre-requisite for TRAF4-NOD2 complex formation and thus to inhibit NOD2-induced NF-κB activation. Therefore, the crystal structure of TRAF4-TRAF is valuable for understanding its molecular basis for its special function and provides structural information for further studies.     

TRAF molecules in cell signaling and in human diseases

The tumor necrosis factor receptor (TNF-R)-associated factor (TRAF) family of intracellular proteins were originally identified as signaling adaptors that bind directly to the cytoplasmic regions of receptors of the TNF-R superfamily. The past decade has witnessed rapid expansion of receptor families identified to employ TRAFs for signaling. These include Toll-like receptors (TLRs), NOD-like receptors (NLRs), RIG-I-like receptors (RLRs), T cell receptor, IL-1 receptor family, IL-17 receptors, IFN receptors and TGFβ receptors. In addition to their role as adaptor proteins, most TRAFs also act as E3 ubiquitin ligases to activate downstream signaling events. TRAF-dependent signaling pathways typically lead to the activation of nuclear factor-κBs (NF-κBs), mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPKs), or interferon-regulatory factors (IRFs). Compelling evidence obtained from germ-line and cell-specific TRAF-deficient mice demonstrates that each TRAF plays indispensable and non-redundant physiological roles, regulating innate and adaptive immunity, embryonic development, tissue homeostasis, stress response, and bone metabolism. Notably, mounting evidence implicates TRAFs in the pathogenesis of human diseases such as cancers and autoimmune diseases, which has sparked new appreciation and interest in TRAF research. This review presents an overview of the current knowledge of TRAFs, with an emphasis on recent findings concerning TRAF molecules in signaling and in human diseases.