Molecules and morphology: Congruence of data inColumnea (Gesneriaceae)

The cladistic analysis and comparison of molecular and morphological data has been the source of much recent debate. In this study, independent analyses of molecular and morphological data fromColumnea L. sects.Pentadenia andStygnanthe (Gesneriaceae) are compared. Comparative methods include consensus, visually comparing trees from independent analyses and combined data analysis. Consensus methods provided little resolution. Comparison of trees obtained from the independent analyses revealed some differences although the trees are highly similar. However, a combined analysis found that the level of incongruence between the two data sets was low. The tree resulting from the combined data has aspects of both the morphological and molecular trees despite the larger number of molecular characters. In addition, the combined data tree has greater resolution than either of the two data sets singly, indicating that the two types of data are congruent, and complementary to each other.     

Trichomanes resinosum (Hymenophyllaceae), a new species from southern Venezuela and adjacent Guyana

A new species,Trichomanes resinosum, is described and compared to two similar species,T. elegans Rich. andT. rigidum Sw., with which it has been confused.     

Micromorphological and chemical characterisation of Stachys recta L. subsp. serpentini (Fiori) Arrigoni in comparison to Stachys recta L. subsp. recta (Lamiaceae)

Stachys recta L. is a very polymorphous species in which numerous subspecies were recognised. S. recta L. subsp. serpentini (Fiori) Arrigoni is a typical endemism growing on serpentine soils in northern Apennines and particularly in Tuscany (Italy). In order to contribute to a better knowledge of this plant and to its differentiation with respect to S. recta L. subsp. recta, the micromorphological characters (non-glandular and glandular trichomes) and the essential oil composition of the two subspecies were investigated. Micromorphological characters were studied using scanning and transmission electron microscopy, while light microscopy was used for histochemical observations. Essential oil analysis was carried out by gas chromatography and mass spectrometry.In the two examined taxa, the morphology and distribution of glandular and non-glandular trichomes, and the different essential oil composition, may be considered distinctive characters at subspecies level. This is consistent with the taxonomic classification considering S. recta subsp. serpentini a subordinate taxon of S. recta.     

The phylogenetic placement of Ostropales within Lecanoromycetes (Ascomycota) revisited

Results of molecular studies regarding the phylogenetic placement of the order Ostropales and related taxa within Lecanoromycetes were thus far inconclusive. Some analyses placed the order as sister to the rest of Lecanoromycetes, while others inferred a position nested within Lecanoromycetes. We assembled a data set of 101 species including sequences from nuLSU rDNA, mtSSU rDNA, and the nuclear protein-coding RPB1 for each species to examine the cause of incongruencies in previously published phylogenies. MP, minimum evolution, and Bayesian analyses were performed using the combined three-region data set and the single-gene data sets. The position of Ostropales nested in Lecanoromycetes is confirmed in all single-gene and concatenated analyses, and a placement as sister to the rest of Lecanoromycetes is significantly rejected using two independent methods of alternative topology testing. Acarosporales and related taxa (Acarosporaceae group) are basal in Lecanoromycetes. However, if the these basal taxa are excluded from the analyses, Ostropales appear to be sister to the rest of Lecanoromycetes, suggesting different ingroup rooting as the cause for deviating topologies in previously published phylogenies.     

Morphology and development of Nigrosabulum globosum, a cleistothecial coprophile in the Bionectriaceae (Hypocreales)

Recent DNA sequence analyses indicated that Nigrosabulum globosum is a cleistothecial representative of the Bionectriaceae in the Hypocreales, but morphological characters supporting this relationship are unknown. Using light and electron microscopy we followed the development of the ascomata of this species, from the formation of gametangia through to the development of mature ascospores, and observed a series of characters that confirmed its hypocrealean affinities. These included the formation of a gel-filled centrum during early stages of ascoma development, the subsequent appearance of hyaline peridial tissue enclosed within a layer we interpret as representing a melanized uniloculate stroma, apically derived paraphyses, and an ascogenous system that gives rise to asci that were both cylindrical to clavate and globose. Ascospores, previously reported to be smooth, were ornamented with a honeycomb-like reticulum and were able to germinate within the ascoma. The carbonaceous outer (stromatic) walls of the mature, grit-like cleistothecia indicate possible resistance to UV radiation and desiccation. Furthermore, the complement of germinated ascospores would enable mature ascomata to function as propagules that could quickly initiate new growth when transferred to fresh substrate. Our reexamination of N. globosum also provides data that support the hypothesized close relationship with other bionectriaceous, cleistothecial coprophiles, i.e., species of Hapsidospora, and Bulbithecium in particular.     

A molecular and morphological investigation of Batrachospermum arcuatum (Batrachospermales, Rhodophyta) in China

Batrachospermum arcuatum specimens were analysed from seven stream segments in North China. Morphological characteristics were observed and cluster analysis was used to evaluate the divergence among thalli from. Sequence data of the rbcL gene (chloroplast gene) and cox2-3 spacer region (mitochondrial gene) were also utilized to evaluate genetic variation in specimens among stream segments. The specimens from four of the streams were monoecious, while the individuals at the other three locations were dioecious. Cluster analysis showed that the monoecious specimens were not separated from the dioecious specimens, based on morphology, but rather the specimens were grouped by geographical closeness and habitat similarity. Likewise, the combined analyses of rbcL and the cox2-3 spacer data from provided more evidence that breeding system (monoecy vs. dioecy) is not a good morphological character to distinguish species.     

Morphology and taxonomy of chain-forming species of the genus Cochlodinium (Dinophyceae)

The morphology of an unarmored chain-forming harmful dinoflagellate Cochlodinium polykrikoides and its similar species such as Cochlodinium catenatum, Cochlodinium fulvescens, and Cochlodinium convolutum was carefully observed, emphasizing the single cell stage for clarifying taxonomically important morphological features. To differentiate C. polykrikoides from C. convolutum, the shape and the position of the nucleus are useful characters. C. polykrikoides also differs from C. fulvescens in being smaller in size, possessing many rod-shaped chloroplasts and having the sulcus running just below the cingulum on the dorsal surface. Careful observation of the ichnotype of C. catenatum suggests that C. catenatum sensu Kofoid and Swezy collected from off La Jolla, CA, USA, is not identical to C. catenatum sensu Okamura and is probably a different species, in having no chloroplasts and a nucleus positioned at the center of the cell. In addition, C. polykrikoides has many morphological features in common with C. catenatum sensu Okamura except for slightly elongate cells and is probably a junior synonym of this species.     

Syringeal anatomy and allometry in murres (Alcidae: Uria)

Species and sexual differences in vocalizations and the vocal tract are widespread. We studied the vocal tract of Common (Uria aalge) and Thick-billed (U. lomvia) Murres. We predicted anatomical or allometric differences in adults between species and sexes due to vocal differences related to social behavior (Common Murres nest at higher densities; males are the more aggressive sex, etc.). The vocal tract was anatomically simple and similar between species and sexes. The trachea was mainly cartilage, but the posteriormost 4–6 tracheal rings were calcified and fused as the tympanum, as part of the syrinx. The syrinx included the (unfused) first bronchial semirings, which were enlarged and calcified beneath the insertion of M. tracheolateralis. Weak bilateral asymmetry (right side larger) occurred in widths of M. tracheolateralis and M. sternotrachealis. The trachea was ∼10% longer in Common Murres; the tympanum and M. sternotrachealis width were relatively larger in Thick-billed Murres. Vocal-tract morphology and size did not differ between the sexes in either species. In allometric analyses on adults, isometry characterized (1) tympanum size in relation to head + bill length, and to humerus length (respectively), in Thick-billed Murres, and (2) M. sternotrachealis width in relation to tarsometatarsal length in both species. Comparative field studies on species and sexes are needed to clarify the functional significance of our findings in relation to vocalization.     

A review of the systematics of the sleeper shark genus Somniosus with redescriptions of Somniosus ( Somniosus) antarcticus and Somniosus ( Rhinoscymnus) longus (Squaliformes: Somniosidae)

Past treatments of the sleeper shark genus Somniosus generally recognize three species: S. microcephalus, S. pacificus, and S. rostratus. Based on morphometrics and meristics, we conclude that this genus includes two subgenera (Somniosus and Rhinoscymnus) and five species. Subgenus Somniosus differs from Rhinoscymnus by being much larger when adult and in having more numerous tooth rows in the lower jaw, hooklike rather than leaf-shaped dermal denticles, more numerous spiral valve and vertebral counts, and a poorly calcified vertebral column. Subgenus Somniosus includes S. (Somniosus) microcephalus and S. (S.) pacificus of the Northern Hemisphere and S. (S.) antarcticus of the Southern Hemisphere. Although Somniosus antarcticus has been synonymized with S. microcephalus and identified as S. pacificus in past literature, it differs from S. microcephalus in having a shorter interdorsal space, a more posterior first dorsal fin, lower dorsal fins, more numerous tooth rows in the lower jaw, more numerous spiral valve counts, and fewer precaudal vertebrae. Somniosus antarcticus also differs from S. pacificus by having a shorter prebranchial length, lower dorsal fins, more numerous spiral valve counts, and slightly more precaudal vertebrae. Subgenus Rhinoscymnus includes S. (Rhinoscymnus) rostratus from the eastern North Atlantic and Mediterranean Sea (senior synonym of S. bauchotae) and S. (R.) longus from the western Pacific Ocean. Somniosus longus has been synonymized with S. rostratus, but differs in having a relatively longer second dorsal fin, a slightly larger eye, more lower tooth rows, and slightly higher spiral valve counts. Both Somniosus (Somniosus) antarcticus and S. (Rhinoscymnus) longus from the Pacific Ocean were redescribed. A key to the species and the geographical distribution of all species are provided.     

Molecular phylogeny of the yuhinas (Sylviidae: Yuhina): a paraphyletic group of babblers including Zosterops and Philippine Stachyris

Mitochondrial sequences (2,379 bp) from cytochrome b, ND3, 12s and 16s rRNA were analyzed in order to reconstruct the phylogenetic relationships within the yuhinas (Yuhina), including the chestnut-faced babbler Stachyris whiteheadi which is endemic to the Philippines, the Japanese white-eye Zosterops japonicus, the chestnut-flanked white-eye Z. erythropleurus, and the oriental white-eye Z. palpebrosus. The results showed strong support for the idea that S.whiteheadi and three white-eye species form a clade embedded within the Yuhina clade. The robustness of the Yuhina/Philippine Stachyris/Zosterops clade rejected the validity of the monotypic genus Staphida, which was proposed for the striated yuhina Yuhina castaniceps based on its peculiar morphological traits. Sister group relationships between the striped-throated yuhina Yuhina gularis and the rufous-vented yuhina Yuhina occipitalis and between the whiskered yuhina Yuhina flavicollis and the white-naped yuhina Yuhina bakeri were discovered. The sympatric patterns of the above two sister groups in the Himalayas is most likely due to secondary contact. The molecular phylogeny also suggests that crestlessness was derived just once for the Zosterops/Philippine Stachyris clade. The Zosterops/Philippine Stachyris clade in our study also implies that an ancestor of Zosterops/Philippine Stachyris derived the ability to disperse over long distances, so that it could fly over the sea and arrive at the Philippines.     

Biological control of Tipula paludosa (Diptera: Nematocera) using entomopathogenic nematodes (Steinernema spp.) and Bacillus thuringiensis subsp. israelensis

Tipula paludosa (Diptera: Nematocera) is the major insect pest in grassland in Northwest Europe and has been accidentally introduced to North America. Oviposition occurs during late August and first instars hatch from September until mid-October. Laboratory and field trials were conducted to assess the control potential of entomopathogenic nematodes (EPN) (Steinernema carpocapsae and S. feltiae) and Bacillus thuringiensis subsp. israelensis (Bti) against T. paludosa and to investigate whether synergistic effects can be exploited by simultaneous application of nematodes and Bti. Results indicate that the early instars of the insect are most susceptible to nematodes and Bti. In the field the neonates prevail when temperatures tend to drop below 10 °C. S. carpocapsae, reaching >80% control, is more effective against young stages of T. paludosa than S. feltiae (<50%), but the potential of S. carpocapsae might be limited by temperatures below 12 °C. Mortality of T. paludosa caused by Bti was not affected by temperature even at 4 °C but the lethal time increased with decreasing temperatures. Synergistic effects of Bti and EPN against T. paludosa were observed in 3 out of 10 combinations in laboratory assays but not in a field trial. The potential of S. carpocapsae was demonstrated in field trials against early instars in October reaching an efficacy of >80% with 0.5 million nematodes m⁻² at soil temperatures ranging between 3 and 18 °C. Results with Bti were strongly influenced by the larval stage and concentration. Against early instars in autumn between 74 and 83% control was achieved with 13 kg ha⁻¹ Bti of 5,700 International Toxic Units (ITUs) and 20 kg ha⁻¹ of 3,000 ITUs. Applications in spring against third and fourth instars achieved between 0 and 32% reduction. The results indicate that application of Bti and nematodes will only be successful and economically feasible during the early instars and that the success of S. carpocapsae is dependent on temperatures >12 °C. Synergistic effects between S. carpocapsae and Bti require more detailed investigations in the field to determine maximal effect.     

Systematics and biogeography of the Andean genusEriocnemis (Aves: Trochilidae)

Summary With 11 currently recognised species, the genusEriocnemis (Reichenbach, 1849) is one of the most diversified Andean trochilid groups occupying mainly open montane habitats such as the edges of cloud forest or páramos. On the basis of distributional and morphological patterns, this study highlights the geographical variation and biogeography of the taxon. Characteristics common to all these species are the greenish dorsal plumage, the conspicuous and mostly whitish tibial tufts, and a fairly pronounced tail bifurcation. With the help of plumage synapomorphies for a cladistic analysis (PAUP*), several species groups or superspecies can be distinguished: theE. vestitus group (incl.E. vestitus, E. godini, E. nigrivestis), theE. luciani group (incl.E. luciani, E. cupreoventris, E. sapphiropygia), and theE. alinae group (incl.E. alinae, E. mirabilis).E. glaucopoides, E. mosquera, andE. derbyi differ quite widely in morphology and ecological requirements from the other species. Three new subspecies are described,E. vestitus arcosi from southern Ecuador and northern Peru, andE. luciani baptistae from central and southern Ecuador. A previously overlooked specimen ofE. luciani from the Andes of Mérida represents the first species record for Venezuela, about 1100 km northeast of the main population range, and should be recognised taxonomically asE. luciani meridae, subsp. nov., on the basis of its unique plumage morphology and geographical separation. Additionally, the unique type ofE. ventralis (Salvin, 1891) is probably of hybrid origin (E. vestitus × cupreoventris). The genus may have evolved in the northern Andes, subsequently spreading southward and invading the central Andes. Its recent range and phylogenetic patterns indicate vicariance events as the major speciation factor inEriocnemis.In memoriam Dr. Luis F. Baptista (1941–2000)     

Genetic diversity of Schistosoma mansoni within and among individual hosts (Rattus rattus): infrapopulation differentiation at microspatial scale

The distribution of genetic diversity in a local population of the trematode Schistosoma mansoni was determined within and between individual wild rats at a microspatial geographic scale of a standing water transmission site. Using RAPD markers, molecular variance and canonical correspondence analysis were performed to test the significance of genetic differentiation between infrapopulations. Of total gene diversity, 8 and 11% was partitioned between hosts trapped at few metres distance from each other. Significant temporal differentiation (2%) was also detected among schistosomes sampled at 6 month intervals with more infrapopulation pairs differentiated during the dry season of parasite transmission than during the rainy season (45 and 12%, respectively). A combination of factors such as restricted displacement of rats, patchy spatial aggregation of infected snails and limited cercarial dispersion in standing water are likely to promote the genetic differentiation observed between infrapopulations at this microgeographic scale.     

Nomenclatural changes resulting from the transfer of tropical African Sarcostemma to Cynanchum ( Apocynaceae : Asclepiadoideae )

Summary  Four species of tropical African Sarcostemma are transferred to Cynanchum together with two subspecies of S. viminale. In addition, Sarcostemma mulanjense is reduced to subspecific rank under C. viminale.     

A search for the phylogenetic position of the seven-son flower (Heptacodium, Dipsacales): Combining molecular and morphological evidence

A first report on the problematic phylogenetic position ofHeptacodium (2 spp.; China) using molecular data from chloroplast DNA is presented. Amplification of ORF2280 homolog region was executed in a number of representative taxa in order to determine ifHeptacodium shows similar structural rearrangements as other Dipsacales. DNA sequences ofndhF were generated to clarify the phylogenetic position ofHeptacodium among Caprifoliaceae (s.l.). Six outgroup taxa and fifteen representatives of Dipsacales were sampled and more than 2100 basepairs ofndhF sequence were used in a cladistic analysis. Parsimony analysis produced two shortest trees and showedHeptacodium as sister to all members of Caprifoliaceae (s.str.), although weakly supported. Additionally, trees were constructed withndhF data supplemented with availablerbcL sequences and a morphological data set. Results of all analyses support an unresolved basal position forHeptacodium among Caprifoliaceae (s.l.), which in part explains the difficulty experienced previously in classifying the genus.     

Molecular phylogeny of the Acre clade (Crassulaceae): Dealing with the lack of definitions for Echeveria and Sedum

The phylogenetic relationships within many clades of the Crassulaceae are still uncertain, therefore in this study attention was focused on the “Acre clade”, a group comprised of approximately 526 species in eight genera that include many Asian and Mediterranean species of Sedum and the majority of the American genera (Echeveria, Graptopetalum, Lenophyllum, Pachyphytum, Villadia, and Thompsonella). Parsimony and Bayesian analyses were conducted with 133 species based on nuclear (ETS, ITS) and chloroplast DNA regions (rpS16, matK). Our analyses retrieved four major clades within the Acre clade. Two of these were in a grade and corresponded to Asian species of Sedum, the rest corresponded to a European–Macaronesian group and to an American group. The American group included all taxa that were formerly placed in the Echeverioideae and the majority of the American Sedoideae. Our analyses support the monophyly of three genera – Lenophyllum, Thompsonella, and Pachyphytum; however, the relationships among Echeveria, Sedum and the various segregates of Sedum are largely unresolved. Our analyses represents the first broad phylogenetic framework for Acre clade, but further studies are necessary on the groups poorly represented here, such as the European and Asian species of Sedum and the Central and South American species of Echeveria.     

Acaricidal activity of the essential oil from Tetradenia riparia (Lamiaceae) on the cattle tick Rhipicephalus (Boophilus) microplus (Acari; Ixodidae)

Tetradenia riparia (Lamiaceae) is a well-known herbal medicine with a variety of useful properties, including its acaricidal effect. This experiment was carried out to study the bioacaricidal activity of T. riparia essential oil (EO) against engorged females of Rhipicephalus (Boophilus) microplus (Acari; Ixodidae). For this purpose, nine serial concentrations (12.50%, 6.25%, 3.75%, 1.80%, 0.90%, 0.45%, 0.22%, 0.11%, and 0.056% w/v) of T. riparia were used for the adult immersion test (AIT). For the larval packet test (LPT), we used 14 serial concentrations (100.00%, 50.00%, 25.00%, 12.50%, 6.25%, 3.65%, 1.82%, 0.91%, 0.45%, 0.228%, 0.114%, 0.057%, 0.028%, and 0.014% w/v). The results for AIT showed 100.00% and 2.05% mortality, 19.00 and 90.20% for the total number of eggs, egg-laying inhibition of 0.00% and 90.20%, hatchability inhibition of 0.00% and 70.23%, and product effectiveness of 100.00% and 2.89%, respectively. The AIT indicated that the LC₅₀ and LC_99.9, calculated using the Probit test, were for mortality (%) 0.534 g/mL (0.436–0.632) and 1.552 g/mL (1.183–1.92); for total number of eggs were 0.449 g/mL (0.339–0.558) and 1.76 g/mL (1.27–2.248); and for hatchability inhibition were 0.114 g/mL (0.0–0.31) and 2.462 g/mL (1.501–3.422), respectively. Larvae between 14 and 21 days old were fasted and placed in each envelope. Bioassays were performed at 27° ± 1 °C, RH ? 80%. Larval mortality was observed 24 h after treatment and showed 10.60–100% mortality in the LPT bioassay. The LPT showed that the LC₅₀ and LC_99.9 were 1.222 g/mL (0.655–1.788) and 11.382 g/mL (7.84–14.91), respectively. A positive correlation between T. riparia EO concentration and tick control, was observed by the strong acaricidal effects against R. (B.) microplus, and the mortality rate of ticks was dose-dependent. Our results showed that T. riparia is a promising candidate as an acaricide against resistant strains of R. (B.) microplus.