Land use induced changes of organic carbon storage in soils of China

Using the data compiled from China's second national soil survey and an improved method of soil carbon bulk density, we have estimated the changes of soil organic carbon due to land use, and compared the spatial distribution and storage of soil organic carbon (SOC) in cultivated soils and noncultivated soils in China. The results reveal that ～ 57% of the cultivated soil subgroups ( ～ 31% of the total soil surface) have experienced a significant carbon loss, ranging from 40% to 10% relative to their noncultivated counterparts. The most significant carbon loss is observed for the non‐irrigated soils (dry farmland) within a semiarid/semihumid belt from northeastern to southwestern China, with the maximum loss occurring in northeast China. On the contrary, SOC has increased in the paddy and irrigated soils in northwest China. No significant change is observed for forest soils in southern China, grassland and desert soils in northwest China, as well as irrigated soils in eastern China. The SOC storage and density under noncultivated conditions in China are estimated to ～ 77.4 Pg (10¹⁵ g) and ～ 8.8 kg C m^?2, respectively, compared to a SOC storage of ～ 70.3 Pg and an average SOC density of ～ 8.0 kg C m^?2 under the present‐day conditions. This suggests a loss of ～ 7.1 Pg SOC and a decrease of ～ 0.8 kg C m^?2 SOC density due to increasing human activities, in which the loss in organic horizons has contributed to ～ 77%. This total loss of SOC in China induced by land use represents ～ 9.5% of the world's SOC decrease. This amount is equivalent to ～ 3.5 ppmv of the atmospheric CO₂ increase. Since ～ 78% of the currently cultivated soils in China have been degraded to a low/medium productivities and are responsible for most of the SOC loss, an improved land management, such as the development of irrigated and paddy land uses, would have a considerable potential in restoring the SOC storage. Assuming a restoration of ～ 50% of the lost SOC during the next 20–50 years, the soils in China would absorb ～ 3.5 Pg of carbon from the atmosphere.     

Topsoil organic carbon storage of China and its loss by cultivation

Topsoil is very sensitive to human disturbance under the changing climate. Estimates of topsoil soil organic carbon (SOC) pool may be crucial for understanding soil C dynamics under human land uses and soil potential of mitigating the increasing atmospheric CO₂ by soil C sequestration. China is a country with long history of cultivation. In this paper, we present an estimate of topsoil SOC pool and cultivation-induced pool reduction of China soils based upon the data of all the soil types identified in the 2nd national soil survey conducted during 1979–1982. The area of cultivated soils of China amounted to 138 × 10⁶ ha while the uncultivated soils occupied 740 × 10⁶ ha in 1980. Topsoil SOC density ranged from 0.77 to 1489 t Cha⁻¹ in uncultivated soils and 3.52 to 591 t Cha⁻¹ in cultivated soils with the average being 50 ± 47 t Cha⁻¹ and 35 ± 32 t Cha⁻¹, respectively. Geographically, the maximum mean topsoil SOC density was found in northeastern China, being of 70 ± 104 t Cha⁻¹ for uncultivated soils and of 57 ± 54 t Cha⁻¹ for cultivated soils, respectively. The lowest topsoil SOC density for uncultivated soils was found in East China, being of 38 ± 33 t Cha⁻¹ and that for cultivated soils in North China, being of 30 ± 30 t Cha⁻¹. There is still uncertainty in estimating the total topsoil SOC of uncultivated soils because a large portion of them was not surveyed during the 2nd Soil Survey. However, an estimate of total SOC for cultivated soils amounted to 5.1 Pg. On average, cultivation of China’s soils had induced a decrease of SOC density of 15 t Cha⁻¹ giving rise to an overall pool reduction at 2 Pg. This is significantly smaller than the total SOC pool decline of 7 Pg due to cultivation of natural soils in China reported by Wu et al. (Glob. Change Biol. 2003, 9: 305–315), who made a pool estimation of whole soil profile assuming 1 m depth for all soils. As the mean topsoil SOC density of China was lower than the world average value given by Batjes (J. Soil Sci. 1996, 47: 151–163), China may be considered as a country with low SOC density and may have great potential for C sequestration under well defined management. However, the dynamics of topsoil C storage in China agricultural soils since 1980’s and the effects of modern agricultural developments on C dynamics need further study for elucidating the role of China agriculture in global climatic change.     

Soil organic carbon stocks in China and changes from 1980s to 2000s

The estimation of the size and changes of soil organic carbon (SOC) stocks is of great importance for decision makers to adopt proper measures to protect soils and to develop strategies for mitigation of greenhouse gases. In this paper, soil data from the Second State Soil Survey of China (SSSSC) conducted in the early 1980s and data published in the last 5 years were used to estimate the size of SOC stocks over the whole profile and their changes in China in last 20 years. Soils were identified as paddy, upland, forest, grassland or waste‐land soils and an improved soil bulk density estimation method was used to estimate missing bulk density data. In the early 1980s, total SOC stocks were estimated at 89.61 Pg (1 Pg=10³ Tg=10¹⁵ g) in China's 870.94 Mha terrestrial areas covered by 2473 soil series. In the paddy, upland, forest and grassland soils the respective total SOC stocks were 2.91 Pg on 29.87 Mha, 10.07 Pg on 125.89 Mha, 34.23 Pg on 249.32 Mha and 37.71 Pg on 278.51 Mha, respectively. The SOC density of the surface layer ranged from 3.5 Mg ha⁻¹ in Gray Desery grassland soils to 252.6 Mg ha⁻¹ in Mountain Meadow forest soils. The average area‐weighted total SOC density in paddy soils (97.6 Mg ha⁻¹) was higher than that in upland soils (80 Mg ha⁻¹). Soils under forest (137.3 Mg ha⁻¹) had a similar average area‐weighted total SOC density as those under grassland (135.4 Mg ha⁻¹). The annual estimated SOC accumulation rates in farmland and forest soils in the last 20 years were 23.61 and 11.72 Tg, respectively, leading to increases of 0.472 and 0.234 Pg SOC in farmland and forest areas, respectively. In contrast, SOC under grassland declined by 3.56 Pg due to the grassland degradation over this period. The resulting estimated net SOC loss in China's soils over the last 20 years was 2.86 Pg. The documented SOC accumulation in farmland and forest soils could thus not compensate for the loss of SOC in grassland soils in the last 20 years. There were, however, large regional differences: Soils in China's South and Eastern parts acted mainly as C sinks, increasing their average topsoil SOC by 132 and 145 Tg, respectively. In contrast, in the Northwest, Northeast, Inner Mongolia and Tibet significant losses of 1.38, 0.21, 0.49 and 1.01 Pg of SOC, respectively, were estimated over the last 20 years. These results highlight the importance to take measures to protect grassland and to improve management practices to increase C sequestration in farmland and forest soils.     

Increase in soil organic carbon stock over the last two decades in China's Jiangsu Province

Estimates of regional and national topsoil soil organic carbon (SOC) stock change may help evaluating the soil role in mitigation of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions through carbon (C) sequestration in soils. However, understanding of the exact mitigation role is often constrained by the uncertainty of the stock estimation associated with different methodologies. In this paper, a soil database of topsoil (0–20 cm) SOC measurements of Jiangsu Province, China, obtained from a soil survey in 1982, and from a geological survey in 2004, was used to analyze the variability of topsoil SOC among soil groups and among soil regions, and to estimate the change in SOC stocks that have occurred in the province over the last two decades. The soil survey data was obtained from measurements of 662 690 randomly collected samples, while the geological survey data was from 24 167 samples taken using a 2 km × 2 km grid. Statistical analysis was conducted on SOC values for 1982 and 2004 for different categories of soil groups, soil regions, and administrative municipalities, respectively. Topsoil SOC storage was then calculated and the provincial topsoil SOC stock was estimated for each sampling time. There were remarkable differences in SOC levels between soil groups and soil regions and different municipalities. The grid sampling with the geological survey in 2004 yielded smaller variability of topsoil SOC averages, both with soil groups and with soil spatial distribution than the random sampling method used in 1982. Variation of SOC was greater with soil groups than with soil regions in both sampling times, although it was less variable across soil taxonomic categories than within a spatial category. Little variance of the SOC level with soil groups could be explained by clay content. However, the prevalence of paddy fields in the total cropland area governed the regional and municipal average SOC levels. The average provincial topsoil SOC content increased from 9.45 g kg⁻¹ in 1982 to 10.9 g kg⁻¹ in 2004, and the total provincial topsoil SOC stock was enhanced from 149.0±58.1 Tg C in 1982 to 173.2±51.4 Tg C in 2004, corresponding to a provincial average SOC sequestration rate of 0.16±0.09 t C ha⁻¹ yr⁻¹. The SOC sequestration trend for the last two decades could be, in part, attributed to the enhanced agricultural production, symbolized by the grain yield per hectare. The results of SOC stock changes suggest a significant C sequestration in soils of Jiangsu, China, during 1980–2000, with paddy management playing an important role in regional SOC storage and sequestration capacity.     

Digging deeper: A holistic perspective of factors affecting soil organic carbon sequestration in agroecosystems

The global magnitude (Pg) of soil organic carbon (SOC) is 677 to 0.3‐m, 993 to 0.5‐m, and 1,505 to 1‐m depth. Thus, ~55% of SOC to 1‐m lies below 0.3‐m depth. Soils of agroecosystems are depleted of their SOC stock and have a low use efficiency of inputs of agronomic yield. This review is a collation and synthesis of articles published in peer‐reviewed journals. The rates of SOC sequestration are scaled up to the global level by linear extrapolation. Soil C sink capacity depends on depth, clay content and mineralogy, plant available water holding capacity, nutrient reserves, landscape position, and the antecedent SOC stock. Estimates of the historic depletion of SOC in world soils, 115–154 (average of 135) Pg C and equivalent to the technical potential or the maximum soil C sink capacity, need to be improved. A positive soil C budget is created by increasing the input of biomass‐C to exceed the SOC losses by erosion and mineralization. The global hotspots of SOC sequestration, soils which are farther from C saturation, include eroded, degraded, desertified, and depleted soils. Ecosystems where SOC sequestration is feasible include 4,900 Mha of agricultural land including 332 Mha equipped for irrigation, 400 Mha of urban lands, and ~2,000 Mha of degraded lands. The rate of SOC sequestration (Mg C ha^?1 year^?1) is 0.25–1.0 in croplands, 0.10–0.175 in pastures, 0.5–1.0 in permanent crops and urban lands, 0.3–0.7 in salt‐affected and chemically degraded soils, 0.2–0.5 in physically degraded and prone to water erosion, and 0.05–0.2 for those susceptible to wind erosion. Global technical potential of SOC sequestration is 1.45–3.44 Pg C/year (2.45 Pg C/year).     

China's crop productivity and soil carbon storage as influenced by multifactor global change

Much concern has been raised about how multifactor global change has affected food security and carbon sequestration capacity in China. By using a process‐based ecosystem model, the Dynamic Land Ecosystem Model (DLEM), in conjunction with the newly developed driving information on multiple environmental factors (climate, atmospheric CO₂, tropospheric ozone, nitrogen deposition, and land cover/land use change), we quantified spatial and temporal patterns of net primary production (NPP) and soil organic carbon storage (SOC) across China's croplands during 1980–2005 and investigated the underlying mechanisms. Simulated results showed that both crop NPP and SOC increased from 1980 to 2005, and the highest annual NPP occurred in the Southeast (SE) region (0.32 Pg C yr^?1, 35.4% of the total NPP) whereas the largest annual SOC (2.29 Pg C yr^?1, 35.4% of the total SOC) was found in the Northeast (NE) region. Land management practices, particularly nitrogen fertilizer application, appear to be the most important factor in stimulating increase in NPP and SOC. However, tropospheric ozone pollution and climate change led to NPP reduction and SOC loss. Our results suggest that China's crop productivity and soil carbon storage could be enhanced through minimizing tropospheric ozone pollution and improving nitrogen fertilizer use efficiency.     

Global Potential of Soil Carbon Sequestration to Mitigate the Greenhouse Effect

An increase in atmospheric concentration of CO₂ from 280?ppmv in 1750 to 367?ppmv in 1999 is attributed to emissions from fossil fuel combustion estimated at 270±30?Pg C and land use change at 136±55?Pg. Of the emissions from land use change, 78±12?Pg is estimated from depletion of soil organic carbon (SOC) pool. Most agricultural soils have lost 50 to 70% of their original SOC pool, and the depletion is exacerbated by further soil degradation and desertification. The restoration of degraded soils, conversion of agriculturally marginal lands to appropriate land use, and the adoption of recommended management practices on agricultural soils can reverse degradative trends and lead to SOC sequestration. Technological options for SOC sequestration on agricultural soils include adoption of conservation tillage, use of manures, and compost as per integrated nutrient management and precision farming strategies, conversion of monoculture to complex diverse cropping systems, meadow-based rotations and winter cover crops, and establishing perennial vegetation on contours and steep slopes. The global potential of SOC sequestration and restoration of degraded/desertified soils is estimated at 0.6 to 1.2?Pg C/y for about 50 years with a cumulative sink capacity of 30 to 60?Pg. The SOC sequestration is a costeffective strategy of mitigating the climate change during the first 2 to 3 decades of the 21^st century. While improving soil quality, biomass productivity and enhanced environment quality, the strategy of SOC sequestration also buys us time during which the non-carbon fuel alternatives can take effect.     

Black carbon accrual during 2000 years of paddy‐rice and non‐paddy cropping in the Yangtze River Delta,China

Rice straw burning has accompanied paddy management for millennia, introducing black carbon (BC) into soil as the residue of incomplete combustion. This study examined the contribution of BC to soil organic matter and the rate at which it accumulates in paddy soils as a result of prolonged paddy management. Soil depth profiles were sampled along a chronosequence of 0–2000 years of rice–wheat rotation systems and adjacent non‐paddy systems (50–700 years) in the Bay of Hangzhou (Zhejiang province, China). The soil BC content and its degree of condensation were assessed using benzene‐polycarboxylic acids (BPCAs) as geochemical markers. The results showed that despite regular long term BC input, BC only contributed 7–11% of total soil organic carbon (SOC) in the topsoil horizons. Nevertheless, along with SOC, paddy soils accumulated BC with increasing duration of management until 297 years to reach a steady‐state of 13 t BC ha^?1. This was 1.8 times more than in non‐paddy soils. The fate of BC in paddy soils (0–1 m) could be modeled revealing an average annual input of 44 kg ha^?1 yr^?1, and a mean residence time of 303 years. The subsoils contributed at least 50% to overall BC stocks, which likely derived from periods prior to land embankment and episodic burial of ancient topsoil, as also indicated by BPCA pattern changes. We conclude that there is a significant but limited accumulation of C in charred forms upon prolonged paddy management. The final contribution of BC to total SOC in paddy soils was similar to that in other aerobic ecosystems of the world.     

Soil carbon stock and its changes in northern China's grasslands from 1980s to 2000s

Climate warming is likely to accelerate the decomposition of soil organic carbon (SOC) which may lead to an increase of carbon release from soils, and thus provide a positive feedback to climate change. However, SOC dynamics in grassland ecosystems over the past two decades remains controversial. In this study, we estimated the magnitude of SOC stock in northern China's grasslands using 981 soil profiles surveyed from 327 sites across the northern part of the country during 2001–2005. We also examined the changes of SOC stock by comparing current measurements with historical records of 275 soil profiles derived from China's National Soil Inventory during the 1980s. Our results showed that, SOC stock in the upper 30 cm in northern China's grasslands was estimated to be 10.5 Pg C (1 Pg=10¹⁵ g), with an average density (carbon stock per area) of 5.3 kg C m^?2. SOC density (SOCD) did not show significant association with mean annual temperature, but was positively correlated with mean annual precipitation. SOCD increased with soil moisture and reached a plateau when soil moisture was above 30%. Site‐level comparison indicated that grassland SOC stock did not change significantly over the past two decades, with a change of 0.08 kg C m^?2, ranging from ?0.30 to 0.46 kg C m^?2 at 95% confidence interval. Transect‐scale comparison confirmed that grassland SOC stock remained relatively constant from 1980s to 2000s, suggesting that soils in northern China's grasslands have been carbon neutral over the last 20 years.     

Vegetation carbon sequestration in Chinese forests from 2010 to 2050

Forests store a large part of the terrestrial vegetation carbon (C) and have high C sequestration potential. Here, we developed a new forest C sequestration (FCS) model based on the secondary succession theory, to estimate vegetation C sequestration capacity in China's forest vegetation. The model used the field measurement data of 3161 forest plots and three future climate scenarios. The results showed that logistic equations provided a good fit for vegetation biomass with forest age in natural and planted forests. The FCS model has been verified with forest biomass data, and model uncertainty is discussed. The increment of vegetation C storage in China's forest vegetation from 2010 to 2050 was estimated as 13.92 Pg C, while the average vegetation C sequestration rate was 0.34 Pg C yr^?1 with a 95% confidence interval of 0.28–0.42 Pg C yr^?1, which differed significantly between forest types. The largest contributor to the increment was deciduous broadleaf forest (37.8%), while the smallest was deciduous needleleaf forest (2.7%). The vegetation C sequestration rate might reach its maximum around 2020, although vegetation C storage increases continually. It is estimated that vegetation C sequestration might offset 6–8% of China's future emissions. Furthermore, there was a significant negative relationship between vegetation C sequestration rate and C emission rate in different provinces of China, suggesting that developed provinces might need to compensate for undeveloped provinces through C trade. Our findings will provide valuable guidelines to policymakers for designing afforestation strategies and forest C trade in China.     

Soil carbon sequestration potential of permanent pasture and continuous cropping soils in New Zealand

Understanding soil organic carbon (SOC) sequestration is important to develop strategies to increase the SOC stock and, thereby, offset some of the increases in atmospheric carbon dioxide. Although the capacity of soils to store SOC in a stable form is commonly attributed to the fine (clay + fine silt) fraction, the properties of the fine fraction that determine the SOC stabilization capacity are poorly known. The aim of this study was to develop an improved model to estimate the SOC stabilization capacity of Allophanic (Andisols) and non‐Allophanic topsoils (0–15 cm) and, as a case study, to apply the model to predict the sequestration potential of pastoral soils across New Zealand. A quantile (90th) regression model, based on the specific surface area and extractable aluminium (pyrophosphate) content of soils, provided the best prediction of the upper limit of fine fraction carbon (FFC) (i.e. the stabilization capacity), but with different coefficients for Allophanic and non‐Allophanic soils. The carbon (C) saturation deficit was estimated as the difference between the stabilization capacity of individual soils and their current C concentration. For long‐term pastures, the mean saturation deficit of Allophanic soils (20.3 mg C g^?1) was greater than that of non‐Allophanic soils (16.3 mg C g^?1). The saturation deficit of cropped soils was 1.14–1.89 times that of pasture soils. The sequestration potential of pasture soils ranged from 10 t C ha^?1 (Ultic soils) to 42 t C ha^?1 (Melanic soils). Although meeting the estimated national soil C sequestration potential (124 Mt C) is unrealistic, improved management practices targeted to those soils with the greatest sequestration potential could contribute significantly to off‐setting New Zealand's greenhouse gas emissions. As the first national‐scale estimate of SOC sequestration potential that encompasses both Allophanic and non‐Allophanic soils, this serves as an informative case study for the international community.     

Soil organic carbon stocks in southeast Germany (Bavaria) as affected by land use,soil type and sampling depth

Precise estimations of soil organic carbon (SOC) stocks are of decided importance for the detection of C sequestration or emission potential induced by land use changes. For Germany, a comprehensive, land use–specific SOC data set has not yet been compiled. We evaluated a unique data set of 1460 soil profiles in southeast Germany in order to calculate representative SOC stocks to a depth of 1 m for the main land use types. The results showed that grassland soils stored the highest amount of SOC, with a median value of 11.8 kg m^?2, whereas considerably lower stocks of 9.8 and 9.0 kg m^?2 were found for forest and cropland soils, respectively. However, the differences between extensively used land (grassland, forest) and cropland were much lower compared with results from other studies in central European countries. The depth distribution of SOC showed that despite low SOC concentrations in A horizons of cropland soils, their stocks were not considerably lower compared with other land uses. This was due to a deepening of the topsoil compared with grassland soils. Higher grassland SOC stocks were caused by an accumulation of SOC in the B horizon which was attributable to a high proportion of C‐rich Gleysols within grassland soils. This demonstrates the relevance of pedogenetic SOC inventories instead of solely land use–based approaches. Our study indicated that cultivation‐induced SOC depletion was probably often overestimated since most studies use fixed depth increments. Moreover, the application of modelled parameters in SOC inventories is questioned because a calculation of SOC stocks using different pedotransfer functions revealed considerably biased results. We recommend SOC stocks be determined by horizon for the entire soil profile in order to estimate the impact of land use changes precisely and to evaluate C sequestration potentials more accurately.     

Deep ploughing increases agricultural soil organic matter stocks

Subsoils play an important role within the global C cycle, since they have high soil organic carbon (SOC) storage capacity due to generally low SOC concentrations. However, measures for enhancing SOC storage commonly focus on topsoils. This study assessed the long‐term storage and stability of SOC in topsoils buried in arable subsoils by deep ploughing, a globally applied method for breaking up hard pans and improving soil structure to optimize crop growing conditions. One effect of deep ploughing is translocation of SOC formed near the surface into the subsoil, with concomitant mixing of SOC‐poor subsoil material into the ‘new’ topsoil. Deep‐ploughed croplands represent unique long‐term in situ incubations of SOC‐rich material in subsoils. In this study, we sampled five loamy and five sandy soils that were ploughed to 55–90 cm depth 35–50 years ago. Adjacent, similarly managed but conventionally ploughed subplots were sampled as reference. The deep‐ploughed soils contained on average 42 ± 13% more SOC than the reference subplots. On average, 45 years after deep ploughing, the ‘new’ topsoil still contained 15% less SOC than the reference topsoil, indicating long‐term SOC accumulation potential in the topsoil. In vitro incubation experiments on the buried sandy soils revealed 63 ± 6% lower potential SOC mineralisation rates and also 67 ± 2% lower SOC mineralisation per unit SOC in the buried topsoils than in the reference topsoils. Wider C/N ratio in the buried sandy topsoils than in the reference topsoils indicates that deep ploughing preserved SOC. The SOC mineralisation per unit SOC in the buried loamy topsoils was not significantly different from that in the reference topsoils. However, 56 ± 4% of the initial SOC was preserved in the buried topsoils. It can be concluded that deep ploughing contributes to SOC sequestration by enlarging the storage space for SOC‐rich material.     

Soil carbon sequestration due to post‐Soviet cropland abandonment: estimates from a large‐scale soil organic carbon field inventory

The break‐up of the Soviet Union in 1991 triggered cropland abandonment on a continental scale, which in turn led to carbon accumulation on abandoned land across Eurasia. Previous studies have estimated carbon accumulation rates across Russia based on large‐scale modelling. Studies that assess carbon sequestration on abandoned land based on robust field sampling are rare. We investigated soil organic carbon (SOC) stocks using a randomized sampling design along a climatic gradient from forest steppe to Sub‐Taiga in Western Siberia (Tyumen Province). In total, SOC contents were sampled on 470 plots across different soil and land‐use types. The effect of land use on changes in SOC stock was evaluated, and carbon sequestration rates were calculated for different age stages of abandoned cropland. While land‐use type had an effect on carbon accumulation in the topsoil (0–5 cm), no independent land‐use effects were found for deeper SOC stocks. Topsoil carbon stocks of grasslands and forests were significantly higher than those of soils managed for crops and under abandoned cropland. SOC increased significantly with time since abandonment. The average carbon sequestration rate for soils of abandoned cropland was 0.66 Mg C ha^?1 yr^?1 (1–20 years old, 0–5 cm soil depth), which is at the lower end of published estimates for Russia and Siberia. There was a tendency towards SOC saturation on abandoned land as sequestration rates were much higher for recently abandoned (1–10 years old, 1.04 Mg C ha^?1 yr^?1) compared to earlier abandoned crop fields (11–20 years old, 0.26 Mg C ha^?1 yr^?1). Our study confirms the global significance of abandoned cropland in Russia for carbon sequestration. Our findings also suggest that robust regional surveys based on a large number of samples advance model‐based continent‐wide SOC prediction.     

Converting paddy fields to Lei bamboo (Phyllostachys praecox) stands affected soil nutrient concentrations, labile organic carbon pools, and organic carbon chemical compositions

Background and aims

Land-use change often markedly alters soil carbon (C) and nitrogen (N) pool sizes with implications for climate change and soil sustainability. The objective of this research was to study the effect of converting paddy fields to Lei bamboo (Phyllostachys praecox) stands on soil C and N and other nutrient pools as well as the chemical structure of soil organic C (SOC) in the soil profile.

Methods

Soils (Anthrosols) from four adjacent paddy field–bamboo forest pairs with a known land-use history were sampled from Lin’an County, Zhejiang Province. Soil water soluble organic C (WSOC), hot water soluble organic C (HWSOC), microbial biomass C (MBC), readily oxidizable C (ROC), water soluble organic N (WSON), and other soil chemical and physical properties were determined. Soil organic C functional group compositions were determined by ¹³C-nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR).

Results

Concentrations of soil available P, available K, and different N forms increased (P?<?0.05) by the land-use conversion. Higher concentrations of SOC and total N (TN) were observed in the subsoil (20–40 and 40–60 cm soil layers) but not in the topsoil (0–20 cm layer) in the bamboo stands than in the paddy fields. The storage of SOC and TN in the entire soil profile (0–60 cm) increased by 56.7 and 70.7 %, respectively, after the land-use change. The increases in the SOC stock of the three soil layers were 11.0, 14.3, and 9.5 Mg C ha^?1, respectively. The conversion decreased WSOC concentrations in the subsoil but increased the ROC concentration in the topsoil. Solid-state NMR spectroscopy of soil samples showed that the conversion increased (P?<?0.05) the O-alkyl C content while decreased the aromatic C content, alkyl C to O-alkyl C ratio (A/O-A), and aromaticity of SOC.

Conclusions

Conversion of paddy fields to bamboo stands increased soil nutrient availability, and SOC and TN stocks. Effects of land-use change on C pools and C chemistry of SOC varied among different soil layers in the profile. The impact of the land-use conversion on soil organic C pools was not restricted to the topsoil, but changes in the subsoil were equally large and should be accounted for.     

Climate warming alters subsoil but not topsoil carbon dynamics in alpine grassland

Subsoil contains more than half of soil organic carbon (SOC) globally and is conventionally assumed to be relatively unresponsive to warming compared to the topsoil. Here, we show substantial changes in carbon allocation and dynamics of the subsoil but not topsoil in the Qinghai‐Tibetan alpine grasslands over 5 years of warming. Specifically, warming enhanced the accumulation of newly synthesized (¹⁴C‐enriched) carbon in the subsoil slow‐cycling pool (silt‐clay fraction) but promoted the decomposition of plant‐derived lignin in the fast‐cycling pool (macroaggregates). These changes mirrored an accumulation of lipids and sugars at the expense of lignin in the warmed bulk subsoil, likely associated with shortened soil freezing period and a deepening root system. As warming is accompanied by deepening roots in a wide range of ecosystems, root‐driven accrual of slow‐cycling pool may represent an important and overlooked mechanism for a potential long‐term carbon sink at depth. Moreover, given the contrasting sensitivity of SOC dynamics at varied depths, warming studies focusing only on surface soils may vastly misrepresent shifts in ecosystem carbon storage under climate change.     

Carbon sequestration potential of soils in southeast Germany derived from stable soil organic carbon saturation

Sequestration of atmospheric carbon (C) in soils through improved management of forest and agricultural land is considered to have high potential for global CO₂ mitigation. However, the potential of soils to sequester soil organic carbon (SOC) in a stable form, which is limited by the stabilization of SOC against microbial mineralization, is largely unknown. In this study, we estimated the C sequestration potential of soils in southeast Germany by calculating the potential SOC saturation of silt and clay particles according to Hassink [Plant and Soil 191 (1997) 77] on the basis of 516 soil profiles. The determination of the current SOC content of silt and clay fractions for major soil units and land uses allowed an estimation of the C saturation deficit corresponding to the long‐term C sequestration potential. The results showed that cropland soils have a low level of C saturation of around 50% and could store considerable amounts of additional SOC. A relatively high C sequestration potential was also determined for grassland soils. In contrast, forest soils had a low C sequestration potential as they were almost C saturated. A high proportion of sites with a high degree of apparent oversaturation revealed that in acidic, coarse‐textured soils the relation to silt and clay is not suitable to estimate the stable C saturation. A strong correlation of the C saturation deficit with temperature and precipitation allowed a spatial estimation of the C sequestration potential for Bavaria. In total, about 395 Mt CO₂‐equivalents could theoretically be stored in A horizons of cultivated soils – four times the annual emission of greenhouse gases in Bavaria. Although achieving the entire estimated C storage capacity is unrealistic, improved management of cultivated land could contribute significantly to CO₂ mitigation. Moreover, increasing SOC stocks have additional benefits with respect to enhanced soil fertility and agricultural productivity.     

Mechanisms of C Sequestration in Soils of Latin America

Carbon (C) sequestration, defined as the process whereby atmospheric CO₂ is transferred into a long-lived C pool, is an important issue not only in the scientific community but also in the society at large because of its potential role in off-setting fossil fuel emissions. Through photosynthesis this C is stored in plants and through decomposition, trunks, branches, leaves and roots are incorporated in the soil via the action of different soil organisms, i.e., bacteria, fungi and invertebrates. This, together with the C exudates from roots that are utilized by microbial populations, constitutes the natural pathways of incorporating biomass-C into the soil. The amount of C stored in terrestrial ecosystems is the third largest among the global C pools. Soil organic carbon (SOC) up to 3 m is 2,344 Pg C (1 Petagram = 10¹⁵ g), and the SOC pool in tropical soils is approximately 30% of the global pool. Abiotic factors, which moderate C sequestration in soils are clay content, mineralogy, structural stability, landscape position, and soil moisture and temperature regimes. On the other hand, biotic factors involved in soil C sequestration are determined by the activities of soil organisms. However, models do not include the formation, stabilization and lifespan of the aggregates that have been biologically produced, including roots. This is not only due to the lack of studies on this subject, but also to overlooking the role of soil organisms in soil aggregation. Furthermore, there is a lack of comprehensive knowledge regarding the processes that control dissolved organic carbon (DOC) fluxes in soils and its role in the global budget of C sequestration. The boundaries of ecosystems are not considered in the studies of the subject, as it may be the case for terrestrial C sequestration, since the borders around the sites under study constitute pathways for the flow of C between sites and through the landscape. The concentrations of DOC in deep soil horizons and the contribution to DOC fluxes (exports) are relatively small, from 4 to 37 g DOC m^?2 yr^?1 retained in the mineral subsoil. In South America, although substantial research has been done under different ecosystems and land use systems in some countries, like Brazil, Colombia, Argentina, there is a need to conduct more studies with agreed standard methodologies in natural ecosystems and agricultural systems, and in other areas of Central America few studies have been undertaken to date. The principal objective of this review was to address the main mechanisms that determine SOC and SIC sequestration in soils of Latin America, and include: physical aggregate protection, SOC-clay interaction, DOC transport, bioturbation by soil organisms, and the formation of secondary carbonates. All of these mechanisms are generally explained by physical and chemical processes. In contrast, this review takes a soil ecological approach to describe the mechanisms listed above.     

1981-2019年华北平原农田土壤有机碳储量的时空变化及影响机制

农业土壤具有可观的固碳及减碳潜力,有助于减缓人类温室气体排放导致的气候变化。为了更好地了解华北平原土壤有机碳储量动态及其驱动因子,结合荟萃分析、随机森林机器学习模型和卫星遥感数据,研究了1981-2019年间中国华北平原农田土壤有机碳储量的时空变化及其驱动因子。结果表明,1981-2019年间华北平原0-20 cm农田土壤有机碳储量约为（523.10±79.36） Tg C （（14.56±1.66） Mg C/hm²）,并以5.94 Tg C/a （0.12 Mg C hm^-2 a^-1）的年固持速率稳步增长,占比约为中国农田每年新增土壤有机碳的23.3%。其中,常规农田管理措施,包括无机肥施用、有机肥施用和秸秆还田,对土壤有机碳增长的贡献平均为25.1%,即1.49 Tg C/a （0.03 Mg C hm^-2 a^-1）。相比对照组,氮磷钾无机肥施用可提高22.7%-26.0%的土壤有机碳固定速率,有机肥可提高48.3%,秸秆还田可提高23.4%。同时,上述常规农田管理措施对土壤有机碳的积累作用受到土壤本身理化性质的调控,在温度和降水较高的气候条件下更显著。值得注意的是,无论是无机肥施用、有机肥施用还是秸秆还田,当投入量超过农作物和土壤微生物对碳和养分的需求时,土壤有机碳累积速率会显著下降。这也导致2000年后土壤有机碳固持速率明显减缓,由9.4 Tg C/a下降为3.5 Tg C/a。总的来说,过去几十年农田管理措施的改进显著提高了华北平原农田土壤有机碳的增加速率,而未来华北平原农田系统固碳潜力仍然可观,但亟待明确在保证粮食产量的同时不同气候和土壤环境条件下最佳固碳所需的化肥、有机肥和秸秆投入量。     

Greenhouse gas mitigation potential in crop production with biochar soil amendment—a carbon footprint assessment for cross‐site field experiments from China

Biochar soil amendment (BSA) had been advocated as a promising approach to mitigate greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions in agriculture. However, the net GHG mitigation potential of BSA remained unquantified with regard to the manufacturing process and field application. Carbon footprint (CF) was employed to assess the mitigating potential of BSA by estimating all the direct and indirect GHG emissions in the full life cycles of crop production including production and field application of biochar. Data were obtained from 7 sites (4 sites for paddy rice production and 3 sites for maize production) under a single BSA at 20 t/ha^?1 across mainland China. Considering soil organic carbon (SOC) sequestration and GHG emission reduction from syngas recycling, BSA reduced the CFs by 20.37–41.29 t carbon dioxide equivalent ha^?1 (CO₂‐eq ha^?1) and 28.58–39.49 t CO₂‐eq ha^?1 for paddy rice and maize production, respectively, compared to no biochar application. Without considering SOC sequestration and syngas recycling, the net CF change by BSA was in a range of ?25.06 to 9.82 t CO₂‐eq ha^?1 and ?20.07 to 5.95 t CO₂‐eq ha^?1 for paddy rice and maize production, respectively, over no biochar application. As the largest contributors among the others, syngas recycling in the process of biochar manufacture contributed by 47% to total CF reductions under BSA for rice cultivation while SOC sequestration contributed by 57% for maize cultivation. There was a large variability of the CF reductions across the studied sites whether in paddy rice or maize production, due likely to the difference in GHG emission reductions and SOC increments under BSA across the sites. This study emphasized that SOC sequestration should be taken into account the CF calculation of BSA. Improved biochar manufacturing technique could achieve a remarkable carbon sink by recycling the biogas for traditional fossil‐fuel replacement.